
Class 

Book 

CojyiighiN^ 



COEaRIGlIT DEPOSIT. 



The 
Poultryman's Handbook 



A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK 

For All Persons Interested in the 

Production of Eggs and Poultry for Market 

and the Breeding of Standard-Bred 

Poultry for Exhibition 



BY 

International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON. PA. 



2nd Edition, S8th Thousand, 8th Impression 



scranton, pa. 
International Textbook Company 

1920 






Copyright, 1912, 1920, By 
International Textbook Company 
Copyright in Great Britain 
All Rights Resebvso 




^^^ 



MAK 18 1320 



Press of 

International Textbook Company 

SCRANTON, Pa. 

.■^csTCTag^ 76519 



©aA585340 



4 PREFACE 

y This handbook is intended as a book of refer- 
jence for poultrymen generally. The publishers 
:* have not attempted to produce a condensed cyclo- 
' pedia covering the broad field of poultry hus- 
bandry, but they have aimed to present to the 
-public a handy reference book convenient to carry 
in the pocket — a pocketbook in reality — and con- 
taining such information as is most often needed 
s^by poultrymen who handle fowls commercially 
in large numbers, by persons who keep a few 
fowls in the back yard, and by breeders who aim 
to produce poultry of the best quality for exhi- 
bition. Although the treatment of some subjects 
is of necessity brief, it has been the aim so to 
distribute the space available that it would cover 
the more important subjects as fully as possible. 
The more important poultry foods are briefly 
described and discussed,. and, s^rnplp rations are 
given for the feeding of fo^ls,"^ chicks, turkeys, 
guinea fowls, pheasants, ducks, geese, pigeons, 
etc. Much useful information in regard to incu- 
bation and brooding is given. Eggs and market 
poultry, the various methods of breeding, and the 
enemies and diseases of poultry are discussed, 

iii 



iv PREFACE 

and the insecticides and remedies for poultry are 
given. The various methods of poultry judging 
are explained and samples of the various score 
cards shown. 

The glossary of technical terms is a feature 
that will be appreciated by poultry fanciers, as it 
is one of the most complete that has ever been 
compiled. The book closes with several pages of 
miscellaneous information, which will be found 
of general interest. 

This handbook was prepared under the per- 
sonal supervision of Thomas F. McGrew, Prin- 
cipal of the School of Poultry Husbandry, as- 
sisted by A. F. Stokes and H. D. Boone. 

International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON, Pa. 
June^ igig 



INDEX 



Age of fowls, How to as- 
certain, 241 

Aid to the injured, First, 
330 

Ailments and treatment, 
186 

Alfalfa, 53 

American Poultry Associa- 
tion show rules, 203 
standard of perfection, 
208 

Angles or arcs, Measures 
of, 292 

Animal foods for poultry, 
54 

Animals destructive of 
poultry, 177 

Anniversaries, Names of 
wedding, 314 

Apothecaries' fluid mea- 
sure, 290 
weight. Table of, 289 

Apples, 50 

Arithmetic, 287 

Artificial light to increase 
egg production, 150 
respiration, 332, 341 

Avoirdupois weight, Table 
of, 288 



Baffler, Cornell wind, 15 

Bale, 299' 

Bands for marking poultry, 

228 
Bantams, Houses for, 23 
Barley, 44 

Barrel, Cu. ft. in, 309 
of flour, pork, or beef. 

Weight of, 290 
Barron method of selecting 

layers, 149 
Beans, 45 
Beets, 48 



Bins, Measurement of, 309 

Birds and fish. Care of, 315 

destructive to poultry, 

178 
Birthday stone for each 

month in the year, 314 
Black Orpington, Picture 

of, 121 
Bleeding, Treatment of, 334 
Board measure, 306 
Boiling point of water, 298 
Bone for poultry food, 55 
Books, Size of, 299 
Breeding, 160 
Breeds and standard and 

non-standard varieties 
_ of poultry, 210 _ 
Brickwork estimations, 308 
British thermal unit (B. 

T. U.), 296 
Broilers and roasters, 

Classes of, 156 
and _ roasters, _ Time re- 
quired to raise, 156 
Feeding of chicks for, 75 
Bronchitis, Treatment of, 

187 
Brooding of chicks, 108 

Points in successful, 112 
Broom corn, 44 
B. T. U., 296 
Buckwheat, 44 
Bumblefoot, Treatment of, 

190 
Bundle, 299 

Burns, Treatment of, 340 
Bushel, Cu. in. in, 309 _ 
Legal weights of various 

commodities per, 245 
pounds in, 290 
Business, Rules of, 316 



Cabbage, 49 

Calcimining estimations, 302 



INDEX 



Calendar for the poultry- 
man's year, 233 

California, Housing prob- 
lems in, 31 

Calorie, 296 

Canary seed, 48 

Capacities of bins, cisterns, 
etc., 309 

Capacity, Measures of, 289 
Metric measures of, 293 

Care and preservation of 
eggs, 129 
of birds and fish, 315 

Carpeting estimations, 3C5 

Carrots, 50 

Casks, Gauging of, 310 

Catching and holding pig- 
eons, Proper way of, 244 

Cement floor, 12 

Centigrade and Fahrenheit 
degrees, 297, 298 

Certificate of deposit, 318 

Charcoal, 57 

Checks, 317 

Chicken pox. Treatment of, 
190 

Chicks, Brooding of, 108 
Feeding of young, 66 
for broilers. Feeding of, 
75 

Circular measure. Table of, 
292 

Cisterns, Measurement of, 
309 

Classes of broilers and 
roasters, 156 
of market poultry, 154 

Cleansing mixture for 
hens, 78 

Clover, 53 

Coal, Volume of 1 ton, 310 

Coins of the United States, 
294 

Color of eggshell, 114 

Comparison of poultry and 
certain other foods, 153 
score card, 196 

Composition of eggs, 114 
of eggs and certain other 

foods, 116 
of foods, 34 



Compound interest, Years 
at which a given 
amount will double, 322 

Conversion of thermometer 
readings, 298 

Cord of wood, 301 

Corn, 42 
Broom, 44 
Kafir, 43 

Cornell feeding schedule, 
67 
method for judging fowls 
for egg production, 143 

Correspondence, 326 

Cottonseed meal, 47 

Cross-breeding, 162 

Cubic measure, Table of, 
288 



Degrees, Centigrade and 
Fahrenheit, 297, 298 

Diarrhea, Treatment of, 188 

Difference of sun time be- 
tween New York City 
and other parts of the 
world, 300 

Discount rates, 321 

Diseases, 180 
and enemies of poultry, 

163 
and treatment, 186 
Fundamental principles 

of treatment of, 182 
of legs and feet. Treat- 
ment of, 189 
of the intestines. Treat- 
ment of, 187 . 

Dislocations and sprains, 
340 

Distances and time by 
postal routes, 311 
Measures of, 301 

Dorking, Picture of, 152 

Dozen, 298 

Drafts, 320 

Drawn-weight value com- 
pared with live and 
plucked weight, 159 

Dressing fowls. Loss of 
weight in, 154 



INDEX 



Drowned persons. Restor- 
ing of apparently, 341 
Dry mash, 71 
measure, 290 
Ducks, Feeding of, 80 
Due bill, 320 

E 

Egg and fowl. Composition 

of, 64 
crop. Percentage of loss 

of total, 118 
eating in fowls. Treat- 
ment of, 190 
prices, 140 
production. Artificial 

light to increase, 150 
production, Barron meth- 
od of selecting layers 

for, 149 
production in the United 

States, 3 
production, Judging fowls 

for, by Cornell method, 

143 
production. Monthly rec- 
ords 9f, 122 
production. Relation of, 

to season, 120 
production, Selecting 

hens for, 142 
receipts in seven large 

citied, 5 
Eggs and certain other 

foods, Composition of, 

116 
Care and preservation of, 

129 
Composition of, 114 
Food value of, 114 
for hatching. Care and 

selection of, 98, 99 
Grades of, 123 
Judging, 138 
Official score card for, 

139 
Packages and packing of, 

128 
Preserving of, 134 
Price of, 5 
Quality of, 132 
Standards for, 123 



Eggs, Testing fertility of, 95 
Relation of weight of, to 

egg production, 119 
Uses of, 114 
Washing of, 118 
Weight of, 115 
Eggshells, Color of, 114 
Electric shock. Treatment 

of, 22^7 
Embryo, Development of 

the, 95 
Enemies and diseases of 

poultry, 163 
English money, 295 
English money, Equiva- 
lent of, in United 
States coinage, 295 



Fahrenheit and centigrade 

_ degrees, 297, 298 
Fainting, Treatment of, 331 
Farm flocks, Judging, 197 
Feeding mixtures. Special, 
77 

of chicks for broilers, 75 

of ducks, 80 

of fowls, 63 

of fowls during molt, 74 

of geese, 84 

of guinea fowls, 79 

of laying hens, 69 

of pheasants. 79 

of pigeons, 85 

of turkeys, 78 

of young chicks. 66 

of wild water fowls. 85 

schedule, Cornell. 67 

the sitting hen, 92 
Feedstuffs, Composition of, 

2,7 ^ 
Fertility of eggs. Testing, 

_ 95 _ 
First aid to the injured, 330 
Fish and birds. Care of, 315 
Flaxseed, 46 

Floor space for fowls, 11 
Floors and their construc- 
tion, 11 
Food required by one hen 
in a year, 73" 



INDEX 



Foods for' poultry, Animal, 
54 
Green, 51 

per quart. Weight of, 65 
Poisonous, 58 
Poultry, 34 
Foreign money. Equivalent 
of, in United States 
coinage, 296 
Fowl and egg, Composition 
of, 64 
Names of parts of, 144, 
257 
Fowls, Feeding of, 63 
How to ascertain age of, 

241 
Internal organs of, 59 
Marking of, 226 
Fractures, 338 
Freezing point of water, 

298 
Fumigating and cleansing 
_ poultry houses, 175 

"' ' - - G 

Gallon, Cu. in. in, 309 
Gapes, Treatment of, 187 
Gauging of casks, 310 
Geese, Feeding of, 84 
Glossary of technical terms 
used by poultrymen, 256 
Grading of eggs, 123 
Grains and seeds. Compo- 
sition of, Z7 
Green crops. Miscellaneous, 
54 
foods, 51 
Grit, 57 
Gross, 298 

Guinea fowls. Feeding of, 
79 



Hatching, Rules for, 105 
Hawks, 178 

Hay, Bulk of 1 ton, 310 
Heat, 296 
exhaustion. Treatment of, 

340 
units, 296 
Hemorrhage, Treatment of, 
334 



Hemp seed, 47 
Hens, Feeding of laying, 
69 
for sitting, 89 
Names of parts of, 144, 
257 
Hogshead, Cu. ft. in., 309 
Holding of fowls. Proper 
way of, 242 
of squabs. Proper way of> 
243 
Holidays, Legal, 323 
Houdan, Picture of, 158 
House, Method of ridding, 
of parasites, 175 
Unit, 27 
Houses and yards for dif- 
ferent varieties, 21 
for bantams, 23 
Form and arrangement 

of, 16 
Position for poultry, 15 
Poultry, 7 
Housing problems in Cali- 
fornia, 31 



Ice, Melting point of, 298 
Inbreeding, 161 
Incubation, 86 
Artificial, 97 

Factors that influence 
sucess in, 106 
• Natural, 87 

Period of, 93 
Incubators, 100 
and brooders. Mammoth, 
113 
Indian Runner drake. Pic- 
ture of, 237 
Insecticides, 165 
Fume, 172 

Instruments for apply- 
ing, 173 
Instruments for applying 

insecticides, 173 
Interest rules. Simple, 321 
Years in which a given 
amount will double at, 
322 
Internal organs of fowls, 
59 



INDEX 



Judging eggs, 138 
fowls for egg production, 

Cornell method of, 143 
of farm flocks at fairs 

and shows, 197 
of poultry, 191 

K 

Kafir corn, 43 
Killing and plucking of 
poultry, 157 
of parasites, 174 



Layers, Barron method of 
selecting, 149 
Cornell method of judg- 
ing for, 143 
Laying hens. Cleansing 
mixture for, 78 
hens, Feeding of, 69 
Legal holidays, 323 
weights per bushel of 
various commodities, 245 
Length, Measures of, 287 
Metric measures of, 293 
Letter writing, 326 
Lice killers, 165 
that attack domestic 
fowls, 164 
Light Brahma male. Pic- 
ture of, 47 
Linear measure. Table of, 

287 
Line breeding, 1^0 
Linseed meal, 47 
Liquid lice killer, 171 

measure, 289 
Live-weight value com- 
pared with plucked and 
drawn weight, 159 
Long-ton table, 289 
Loss in dressing fowls, 154 
of total egg crop, Per- 
centage of, 118 

M 

Maine ration, 72 
Mammoth incubators and 
brooders, 113 



Mangels, 48 
Market poultry, 152 
Marking of fowls for iden- 
tification, 226 
of pigeons, 230 
Mash, Dry, 71 
Masonry estimations, 307 
Mating, Methods of, 162 
Measures of angles or arcs, 
292 
of capacity, 289 
of distances, 301 
of extension, 287 
of money, 294 
of time, 291 
of volume, 301 
Meat and meat products 
for poultry, 54 
Tainted, 55 _ 
Metric equivalents of 
pounds, feet, etc., 299 
system of measures, 292 
Milk for poultry food, 56 
Millet, 46 
Mineral matter for poultry, 

57 
Minorca, Picture of, 179 
Miscellaneous information, 
241 
tables, 298 
Missouri ration, 73 
Moisture and temperature 

in incubators, 102 
Molt, Feeding of fowls 

during, 74 
Money, Equivalent of Eng- 
lish, in United States 
coinage, 295 
Equivalent of foreign, in 
United States coinage, 
296 
Measures and tables of, 
294 

N 

Nails, Weight of one keg, 

290 
Names of parts of a fowl, 

257 
Nest box, 89 
Notes, 319 



INDEX 



Oats, 41 

Official score card for eggs, 

139 
Onions, 49 
Ontario ration, 72> 
Orpington, Picture of 

Black, 121 



Packages and packing of 
eggs, 128 

Painting estimations, 302 

Papering estima'tions, 302 

Parasites, Killing of, 174 
Method of ridding a 

house of, 175 
that attack domestic 
fowls, 163, 164 

Parts of a fowl. Names of, 
144, 257 

Peanut meal, 47 

Peas 45 

Peck, Cu. in. in, 309 

Perch of stone, 301 

Petroleum, Weight of gal- 
lon, 290 

Pheasants, Feeding of, 79 

Pigeon fanciers, Terms 
used by, 283 

Pigeons, Feeding of, 85 
Marking of, 230 
Proper way of catching 

and holding, 244 
Varieties of, 280 

Pint, Cu. in. in, 309 

Plastering estimations, 302 

Plucked-weight value com- 
pared with live and 
drawn weight, 159 

Plucking and killing of 
poultry, 157 

Plymouth Rock female. 
Picture of, 64 
Rock male. White, Pic- 
ture of, 97 

Poisonous foods, 58 

Postaldistances and time, 311 

Potatoes, 49 

Poultry and certain other 
foods. Comparison of, 
153 



Poultry and poultry prod- 
ucts. Value of, 2 

Animals destructive to, 
177 

Classes of market, 154 

exports, 6 

foods, 34 

house. Method of ridding, 
of parasites, 175 

houses, 7 

houses. Adaptation of, to 
locality, 7 

houses, Arrangement of, 
16 

houses. Position of, 15 

judging, 191 

Killing and plucking of, 
157 

Market, 152 

Marking of, 226 

prices, 159 

production, Rank of ten 
leading states in, 4 

raising, 1 

shows and associations, 
202 

Simple remedies for, 183 

Standard and non-stand- 
ard varieties of, 209 

Standard weights of, 221 
Powder guns, 173 
Preserving eggs, 134 
Prevention of infestation 
by fowls from other 
flocks, 174 
Prices, Egg, 140 

of poultry, 159 
Production, Monthly rec- 
ords of &^%, 122 
Pumpkins, 50 



Quart, Cu. in. in, 309 
Quintal of fish. Weight of, 

290 
Quire, 299 

R 

Rape seed. 48 

Rations for laying hens, 71 

Ream, 299 

Reaumur thermometer, 298 



INDEX 



Records of egg production, 

Monthly, 122 
Remedies for poultry, 

Simple, 183 
Respiration, Artificial, Zol, 

341 _ 
Restoring of apparently 

drowned persons, 341 
Rice, 46 

Roup, Treatment of, 186 
Rules, American Poultry 

Association, 203 
for hatching, 105 
of business, 316 
Rye, 44 



Score, 298 
card. Comparison, 196 
card. Decimal, 194 
card for eggs, Official, 

139 
card for farm flocks, 198 
card for judging hens by 

Cornell test, 148 
card of American Poultry 
Association, 192 
Season, Relation of egg 

production to, 120 
Selecting hens for egg pro- 
duction, 142 
Shade for poultry, 26 
Shock, Treatment of elec- 
tric, 2Z7 
Treatment of, 333 
Show rules, American 
Poultry Association, 203 
Shows and associations. 

Poultry, 202 
Sitting hens, 89 
Scratch grain, 71 
Sorghum seed, 46 
Specific heats of metals, 296 
Sprains, Treatment of, 340 
Sprayers, 173 
Squabs, Proper way to 

hold, 243 
Square measure, Table of, 

287 
Standard and non-standard 
varieties of poultry, 209 



Standard of perfection, 
American, 208 

Standard weights of poul- 
try, 221 

Standards for eggs, 123 

Sterilizing, 331 

Strain breeding, 161 

Sun stroke, Treatment of, 
341 

Sunflower seed, 46 

Surface, Metric measures 
of, 293 

Surveyors' square measure. 
Table of, 288 

T 

Temperature, 298 
and moisture in incuba- 
tors, 102 
Terms used by pigeon fan- 
ciers, 283 
used by poultrymen, 
Glossary of technical, 
256 
Testing fertility of eggs, 95 
Thermometer readings, Con- 
version of, 298 
Time and distances by 
postal routes, 311 
Difference between that 
of New York City and 
other parts of the 
world, 300 
Measures of, 291 
required to raise broilers 
and roasters, 156 
Toe markings, 226 
Ton, Avoirdupois, 288 
Long, 289 
Metric, 293 
Shipping, 311 
Troy weight, Table of, 289 
Turkeys, Feeding of, 78 
Turnips, 48 

V 

Unit house, 27 

United States money. 

Table of, 294 
Uses of eggs, 114 
Utility score card, 201 



INDEX 



Value of fowls live, 
plucked, or drawn, Rel- 
ative, 159 

Varieties of poultry, Stand- 
ard and non-standard, 
209 

Volume, Measures! of, 301 
Metric measures of, 293 

Vegetables for poultry- 
food, 48 

AV 

Washing of eggs, 118 
Water, Boiling point of, 
298 _ 
Freezing point of, 298 
glass for preserving eggs, 
137 _ 
Wedding anniversaries. 

Names of, 314 
Weight, Metric measures 
of, 293 
of eggs. Relation of, to 
Qg^ production, 119 



Weight, Loss of, in dress- 
ing fowls, 154 
Measures of, 288 
of eggs, 115 

of poultry foods per 
quart, -65 
Weights of poultry. 
Disqualifying, 221 
per bushel of various 
commodities, Legal, 245 
of poultry, Standard, 221 
Wheat, 39 
Wild water fowls. Feeding 

of, 85 
Window construction, 12 
Wounds, 338 
Wyandotte, Picture of, 160 



Yards and houses for dif- 
ferent varieties, 21 
for poultry houses, 25 

Years in which a given 
amount will double, at 
various rates of inter- 
est, 322 



The Poultryman's 
Handbook 



POULTRY RAISING 

Poultry and poultry products add to the wealth of the 
country each year more than wheat, cotton, -or gold. 
Poultry can be kept successfully in almost every part of 
the world and is the most profitable kind of live-stock 
that can be kept. A few fowls can be kept by the inten- 
sive system in very confined quarters, and enough to 
provide poultry and eggs for a small family can be raised 
profitably in a corner of a small town lot; more can be 
kept on a little additional space. 

An attractive feature of poultry raising is that fowls 
may be kept for pleasure as well as profit. A fancier 
may use the best of all the fowls he raises for exhibi- 
tion, sell a few of equal or almost equal quality to others 
for the same purpose, sell eggs from pens of mated fowls 
for hatching, and the culls of the flock will be the best 
of market poultry. At the same time the flock will fur- 
nish a large part of the egg and meat diet for a small 
family. 

Poultry farming can be followed by almost any one 
who has a small piece of ground and a few dollars to 
begin with. The business should be begun in a small 
way and built up gradually. Thousands of men and 
women are becoming independent each year from a 
beginning with a little piece of ground on which they 
raise poultry and vegetables. On a small town lot 
50 ft.XlOO ft. almost enough vegetables may be raised to 



2 VALUE OF POULTRY 

provide for a family for a year, and at the same time 
a small enclosure for poultry may be built on a corner 
of the lot. 

It will be an advantage in . raising vegetables and 
poultry on a small piece of ground, to practice migratory 
yarding. This consists in moving the house and yard 
or simply in moving the fence to enclose a different 
spot of ground. In this way space occupied by the poul- 
try one year will be highly fertilized for the growing of 
vegetables the next year, and the fowls will be bene- 
fited in health and vigor from having new, sweet earth 
to travel over and scratch in. 



VALUE OF POULTRY AND POUL- 
TRY PRODUCTS 

The U. S. census of 1910 places the value of poultry 
and poultry products at $663,858,452. This amount is the 
value of these products from farms, and does not include 
poultry and eggs raised in towns and villages and on 
small farms by persons who made no returns. 

The census separates poultry into two classes, the 
mature fowls kept for egg production and the young ones 
raised each year. The figures for the value of each class 
as well as for the total value of poultry and eggs are 
as follows: 

Total value of mature fowls $154,663,220 

Total value of young fowls raised in 1 year... 202,506,272 
Total value of all eggs produced in 1 year 306,688,960 

Total value of both poultry and eggs $663,858,452 

The following table, taken from the U. S. Census, 
shows the number, total value, and average value of 
fowls and eggs as reported for 1910. The table also gives 
the number of farms reporting and per cent, of all farms 
reporting. 



AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 3 

NUMBER OF FOWLS AND VALUE OP POULTRY 
AND EGGS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1910 









hO 


o w bi 








bO ID 


w.S 


^•b.S 




Number 


Value 




^1 


^^1 


All fowls . . 


295.880.190 


$154 663 220 


$ .52 


5,585,032 


87.8 


Chickens . . 


280.345,133 


liO 205.607 


.50 


5,578,525 


87.7 


Turkeys... 


3.688,708 


6,605,818 


1.79 


871,123 


13.7 


Ducks 


2.906,525 


1,567,164 


.54 


603,704 


7.9 


Geese 


4,431,980 


3 194,507 


.72 


662,324 


10.4 


Eggs 


19,095,736,452 


306,688,960 


.016 


5,634,780 


88.5 



In 1910 there were also reported 1,765,000 guinea fowls, 
valued at $613,000; 2,731,000 pigeons, valued at $762,000; 
and 6,458 peafowls, valued at $18,300. 

The total value of all poultry and eggs in the United 
States in 1910 is estimated to have been more than 
$750,000,000, and for the year ending June 30, 1912, the 
total .value is estimated by the Department of Agricul- 
ture as approximately $950,000,000. The value of poultry 
and eggs in 1918 is estimated as over one billion dollars. 
On November 27, 1912, one of the large New York daily 
newspapers published the following figures giving the 
comparative value per annum of leading American farm 
products for a period of 5 yr. : 

Eggs (average price to farmer 22i c). .$1,800,000,000 

Corn 1,500,000,000 

Wheat 625,000,000 

Hay 720,000,000 

Cotton 685,000,000 

Oats 390,000,000 

All kinds of farm products 8,000,000,000 

Accepting this as a fair estimate, we cannot help 
realizing the immense value of poultry products in the 
United States. 



4 • VALUE OF POULTRY 

The rank of the ten leading states in the number and 
value of fowls produced is shown in the accompanying 
table. 

RANK OP THE TEN LEADING STATES IN THE 
NUMBER AND VALUE OF POULTRY PRODUCED 





State 


Number 




State 


Total 
Value 


\ 


Iowa 


23,482,880 
21,409,835 
20,897.208 
17,342.289 
15.736.038 
13,789.109 
13,669,645 
12.728,341 
10.697.075 
10,678,836 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


Iowa 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Ohio 


$12,269 881 


2 
3 
4 


Illinois 

Missouri 

Ohio 


11,870,972 
1], 696,650 
9,532,672 


5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 


Kansas 

Indiana 

Texas 

Pennsylvania . 
Minnesota . . . 
New York.... 


New York... 

Indiana 

Pennsylvania 

Kansas 

Texas 

Minnesota . . . 


7,879,388 
7.762.015 
7.674,387 
7,377,469 
4,806,642 
4,646,960 



This table shows that the wholesale price of poultry 
in the state of Missouri was greater than in the state 
of Illinois; that the price of Texas poultry was less than 
the price in Pennsylvania; that the price in New York 
was considerably greater than in other states. 

The census reports shows that the average wholesale 
value of live chickens in New England was 74 cents; 
in the Middle States, 68 cents; in the Southern States, 
from 38 to 44 cents; on the Pacific Coast and in the moun- 
tainous districts the price was from 62 to 82 cents each. 
These values indicate that the price of poultry increases 
as the population becomes denser. 

The following table shows the egg receipts by months 
for the years 1913 and 1916 in seven of the largest 
cities of the country and indicates the months of highest 
and lowest production. The highest prices are obtained, 
of course, when the yield is lowest. The seven cities 
in which the eggs were received were Boston, Chicago, 
Cincinnati, Milwaukee, New York, St. Louis, and San 
Francisco. 



AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 5 

RECEIPTS OF EGGS IN SEVEN LARGE CITIES 
DURING EACH MONTH OF 1913 AND 1916 



Months 



1913 
Cases 



1916 

Cases 



January . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August.. . 
September 
October... 
November 
December, 

Total . . 



508,673 

685,160 

1,281,153 

2,218,638 

2,390,427 

1,863,412 

1,344,824 

1,000,157 

841,684 

667.834 

403,146 

399,277 



1,325.131 

551,158 

1,802,467 

2,844,042 

2,549,954 

1,837.307 

1.317.385 

1,070,635 

814,533 

777,954 

531,355 

398,286 



13,604,38; 



15.820,207 



In December, 1913, the total number of cases of eggs 
received at these seven stations was 399,277. The lowest 
price for eggs during that month was 35 cents and the 
highest price for the same month in New York was 
63 cents. The lowest wholesale price for eggs in New 
York during 1913 was 20 cents, the highest wholesale 
price was 65 cents, which was received in November. 

The total importation of eggs into this country during 
1913 was 1,367,224 dozens, which amounted to $205,632. Of 
egg yolks bought by the pound there were 228,305 pounds, 
which cost $36,892. Ostrich feathers were bought at a 
cost of $6,252,298; and other kinds of feathers for 
$1,985,084. 

There were exported from this country in the year 1913, 
20,409,390 dozens of eggs, for which $4,391,653 was received, 
and egg yolks worth $57,854 were exported. The value 
of exported feathers was $690,612. 

The total number of eggs received during 1917 and 1918 
in the seven cities mentioned is r^icorded in the follow- 
ing table. Only yearly totals are given, the monthly 
2 



6 VALUE OF POULTRY 

*^ecords not having been compiled when this table was 
printed. 

RECEIPTS OF EGGS IN SEVEN OF THE LARGEST 
CITIES DURING 1917 AND 1918 



City 


1917 
Cases 


1918 

Cases 


Boston 

Chicago 

Milwaukee 

St. Louis 


1,501,956 

5,678,679 
134,625 

1,373,120 
715.768 
184,022 

4,357,061 


1,604,289 

6,049,743 

180.816 

934,668 




666,845 


Cincinnati 


176,733 


New York. 


5.026,548 




Total 


13,945,231 


13 639,442 







During the years 1917 and 1918 on acount of the world 
war, feed and grain of all kinds advanced so much in 
price as to have an influence on the keeping of poultry. 
Many who had been engaged in the production of poultry 
and eggs for market reduced their flocks considerably. 
Notwithstanding this the production of eggs was remark- 
ably good. The receipts in both these years were in 
excess of 1913, but not so good as in 1916, which was the 
banner year for egg production. The world has now 
returned to near a normal condition, and there is likely 
to be an increased production of both market poultry and 
eggs. 

It is difficult to state definitely the amount of poultry 
exports, as the records of these are kept as poultry and 
game and $1,303,379 worth was reported as having been 
exported from this country in 1913. The greater part of 
all the poultry and eggs put in storage and sent from 
this to other countries is grown in the Western States.' 
They are gathered from many sections into the packing 
houses at Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, and Chicago, 
where the eggs are selected, candled, and graded for 



POULTRY HOUSES 7 

quality. The best eggs are packed into new egg cases; 
The greater part of these selected eggs go into cold 
storage, only a small portion of them being sent abroad. 

Poultry for export is gathered from the West and 
Northwest into these same packing houses, where it is 
crate-fattened and made plump and tender. The packers 
know that to sell poultry in foreign countries it must be 
the very best, because it must compete with poultry from 
European countries where the growers have had years 
of experience in feeding for the London and Paris mar- 
kets. The packing houses have never been able to sup- 
ply enough of this quality to satisfy the foreign trade 
and for this reason very little, if any, has been offered 
for sale in this country. 

This should be a lesson in quality to all who grow 
poultry for the market. The highest prices for market 
poultry are paid only for the best. It costs but little 
more to produce the higher grades and the most profit, 
of course, will be made from growing and selling the best. 



POULTRY HOUSES 



ADAPTATION OF HOUSES TO LOCALITY 

The many changes and developments in poultry-house 
construction during the last few years make necessary 
a careful consideration of all plans, so as to be reason- 
ably certain of having a house that will be suitable for 
the locality where it is built. It is comparatively easy 
to designate the type of house best suited for any one 
locality but when we attempt to choose the style best 
suited to all localities the selection is difficult. In 
America alone we require protection from continual ic^ 
and snow on the north and from the burning heat of the 
tropics on the south. Between these two extremes will 
be found great' variation in weather and temperature. 
During the months of February and March, it may be 



8 POULTRY HOUSES 

so pleasant in Florida that little chicks can run about 
on the ground. At the same time it may be so cold in 
the Dakotas as to require unusual effort to keep larger 
animals sufficiently warm. Notwithstanding this, it is 
possible through care, management, and proper construc- 
tion of buildings to use about the same type of house in 
both localities. 

What is known as the open-front house, or some modi- 
fication of it, is best suited for all localities. In Florida 
and in lower California fully one-half of the front of 
the house should be open and there should be some 
arrangement in the rear and perhaps at both ends of the 
building to clear the house of hot air during the warmest 
months. 

Less open front will be needed in the temperate zones 
than farther south, and less from the Dakotas to Alaska 
than in the temperate zones. The greater the number 
of fowls kept in each house, the more open the front of 
the house should be, and the fewer kept in each house 
throughout the temperate and the northern zones, the less 
open front will be needed. All poultry houses used north 
of latitude 35° should have both glass windows and open- 
front or cotton-cloth windows in them. In recent years 
there has been a practice of putting a window in each 
end of a house. This is a good plan for the summer, but 
it is objectionable for the winter unless the windows can 
be closed so tightly that no cold drafts can enter around 
the edges. 

In temperate zones there should be about 1 sq. ft. of 
open or muslin-covered windows to each 10 sq. ft. of floor 
space and about three-fourths as much glass window as 
muslin window. In the far north, in Winnipeg and in 
Manitoba, about half as much muslin-covered windows 
with fully one-third more glass window will answer. 
The glass windows in all houses should extend from 18 to 
24 in. above the floor to near the roof, to permit the sun- 
Shine to get into the interior of the building. 

Although it is possible to use the same style of exterior 
construction in all localities, it is necessary to under- 



POULTRY HOUSES 9 

stand climatic conditions where the house is built and 
follow the kind of construction that seems best suited 
to that locality. In sections where the winters are of 
long duration and very cold, there should be no hips or 
pockets in the roof nor any extra amount of overhead 
space. The ceiling should be straight and there should 
be some means of carrying away damp cold air and of 
keeping an even temperature and distribution of air 
throughout the entire house. Inside conditions as they 
' exist in the coldest and dampest weather furnish the best 
means of determining proper housing. If the interior of 
the house is dry or nearly so when the weather is cold 
and the air is damp, the conditions inside the building 
are very nearly ideal for poultry. A sure test for dry- 
ness inside of the house is freedom from frost or mois- 
ture on the side walls and glass windows and the condi- 
tion of the litter on the floor. If the litter is damp, it 
indicates that the floor is damp and that the inside of 
the building is not as dry as it should be. Dryness 
inside the house is an absolute necessity for the health 
of fowls. 

One of the best types of house for a very cold climate 
is one that is not more than 61 ft. high to the eaves, has 
a gable roof, and a loft for storing straw overhead. The 
floor of the loft should be of strong boards to sustain 
the weight of the straw. It may be made of planks 2 in. 
thick and 6 in. wide, with the planks laid 4 in. apart. 
The filling of straw overhead makes the building warm 
in the winter and the straw will absorb whatever mois- 
ture may arise. It may be removed in the spring, thus 
giving more overhead ventilation and a cool house for 
summer. 

Both glass windows and cloth-covered windows should 
be used in every locality where the weather is cold. 
There should be a lining of boards from 1 ft. above the 
floor, behind the dropping-board and roosts of the back 
wall, and on the side walls next to the roost. This 
covering of boards should extend up over the dropping- 
board and about 2 ft. beyond it, thus affording a con- 



iO POULTRY HOUSES 

tinuous current of air from the floor to the ceiling behind 
the lining and overhead between the lining and the 
rafters, making the roosting place much warmer in win- 
ter than it would be if there were no lining in that part 
of the house. This same lining assists in ventilating 
the house during hot weather. For this purpose openings 
are cut through the rear of the building so that the air 
will come in and flow up between the rafters overhead, 
driving the hot air out of the house through openings 
very close to the roof in front. 



FEATURES OF POULTRY HOUSES OF 
PROPER CONSTRUCTION 

Sufficient advantages are gained through proper con- 
struction to warrant some expenditure above what would 
be necessary if the buildings were less carefully erected. 
If the poultry houses are perfectly dry inside during the 
winter, properly ventilated, and kept in a sanitary con- 
dition, the hens that are raised in them will be healthy 
and vigorous, and they will produce more eggs than they 
would if housed in damp and unsanitary buildings. Per- 
fect health and vitality are of prime importance, and 
these depend upon proper shelter, ventilation, and care, 
without which the very best hens will not be profitable. 

The principal features of houses of proper construction 
are floor space sufficient for indoor exercise during in- 
clement weather, convenience of interior equipment for 
the keepers, window construction that will admit sun- 
shine to all parts of the house, and govern the tempera- 
ture inside of the house, thus preventing excessive heat 
in summer and intense cold in winter. The floor should 
be of a kind that will prevent the entrance of moisture 
from below and assure protection against the ravages of 
rats and mice; in addition to this there must be such 
ventilation and sanitation as to insure a dry interior. 
Careful practice of these rules will create and maintain 
vigor, vitality, and health in the fowls. 



POULTRY HOUSES II 

Floor Space for Fowls. — The best results are obtained 
in houses where there is at least 4 sq. ft. of floor space 
for each fowl. One square foot less will answer for the 
Mediterranean varieties, provided the house is kept per- 
j fectly clean; an extra square foot should be provided 
for the American and English varieties, because they are 
larger and require more space both for roosting and 
scratching than the Mediterranean varieties, with the 
exception of the Minorcas, which will need fully as much 
space as any of the American varieties. 

Poultry-House Floors and Their Construction.— For 
poultry buildings an earth floor is satisfactory when it 
can be kept dry and sanitary. For general purposes, the 
board floor is better and is the cheapest one that can be 
laid. About the only objections that can be lodged against 
it are that perfect dryness is not always assured and that 
rodents can gnaw through it. The best floor, although 
the most expensive, is the cement floor, because it insures 
perfect dryness, keeps rodents from digging through, and 
can easily be kept in a sanitary condition. A cement 
floor may be cold and rough for the feet, but these 
objections can be overcome, if desired, by laying a board 
on top of the cement. 

;The floors of poultry buildings should be above the 
ground level. For the ground floor, the most satisfactory 
way is to lay a foundation of stone, brick, or cement 
6- .in. high all around, fill it in with dry earth, and pack 
it down solid. 

-Board floors should be laid on 2"X4" joists and the 
spaces between them should be packed with any kind of 
filling. If the joists are set in a bed of concrete and 
concrete is filled in between them level with the top, a 
perfectly dry floor and the exclusion of rodents will be 
assured. When the board floor is laid a coating of hot tar 
should be spread on top of the concrete and covered with 
a layer of tar paper and on top of this another layer of 
hot tar. Such preparation makes a perfect underlay for 
a board floor. The flooring, which should be of grooved 
boards, should be laid on the tar while it is warm and 



12 POULTRY HOUSES 

be nailed close together to prevent cracks in the floor. 
A floor made in this way is an ideal one for poultry. 

For a cement floor, the foundation should be laid all 
around at least 18 in. deep and extend at least 6 in. 
above the ground. The enclosed space should be filled in 
with dry sand or ashes to within 6 in. of the top and the 
material should be packed down solid. On top of this 
should be laid another concrete layer made of 2 parts of 
sand and 1 part of cement, troweled down very smooth 
and worked until the moisture comes to the top. A floor 
made in this way will be smooth and will not hurt the 
feet of the fowls if the work is carefully done. 

Conveniences of Management. — A great saving of time 
and labor will come through having an interior equip- 
ment adequate for caring for the fowls. This equipment 
may consist of dropping-boards, with roosts and nests 
beneath them, all of modern construction. In addition 
to this there should be feed hoppers and watering pans 
placed up above the floor on platforms, out of the way 
of litter and dirt. Hopper feeding is a convenient, eco- 
nomical, and labor-saving method that can be practiced 
by all who keep poultry either in small or large 
numbers. 

Window Construction. — Window construction may well 
be considered as an interior equipment. When so con- 
structed that they can be opened or closed quickly and 
easily, they are a great convenience, but when heavy 
and cumbersome and hard to move, they will make more 
diflicult the changes necessary for controlling temper- 
ature, windstorms, and ventilation. Window sash con- 
taining glass will be convenient if hung on pivots as 
in Fig. 1 (a). The cloth-covered windows are best when 
of small size so that the frames covered with cloth will 
be light and handled easily and quickly. When of small 
size, a part of them can be open while the others are 
closed, thus providing the necessary amount of open front 
to meet the demands of different kinds of weather. 

There are several types of windows well suited to 
poultry houses. The one most convenient for a small 



POULTRY HOUSES 



13 



building is the sliding window, which is simple and 
cheap to construct. For a house 8 ft.XlO ft., a single 
sash should slide either to the right or the left. A frame 
made of wood of the same size as the sash can be covered 
with muslin and used, when needed, in place of the glass 
window. The outside of the opening should be covered 
wath heavy i-in. galvanized wire cloth to prevent birds 




Fig. 1 

or fowls from going in or out througn the window and 
to admit air and light when the windows are left open. 
The window sash or frame should slide in a groove, 
as shown in Fig. 1 (5). Tliis is made by a 2"X4" or a 
2"X2" strip, according to the size and needs of the build- 
ing. The frame for the sliding sash should be suffi- 
ciently long to permit the sash to be entirely open, and 
there should be provision made for replacing or chang- 
ing the sash by sliding the cloth-covered frame over the 
opening and leaving the glass-filled sash in the groove. 



14 POULTRY HOUSES 

I A sash hinged at the top and opening outwards, as 
shown in Fig. 1 (c), is a modern construction for venti- 
lation. When opened slightly, a window of this kind 
will give ventilation and yet turn rain or snow away 
from the opening. This kind of window serves best 
jwhen used for the outer covering. Inner protection can 
jbe had by fastening a window frame to the inside of 
the window, this frame to be covered with heavy gal- 
vanized wire cloth with a mesh no larger than i in. 

One of the very best types of glass window for pro- 
tection and ventilation is represented in Fig. 1 (a). The 
sash in this window is hung on pivots or sash centers. 
A glass window of this kind provides almost ideal venti- 
lation; it can be opened any distance from an inch to 
a foot. The air coming in is driven to the roof and is 
spread out there and distributed throughout the entire 
house. Proper ventilation and a dry interior result 
through the use of these windows without the use of 
open fronts or muslin windows. 

Where the open fronts, the muslin windows, and this 
type of glass window are used, the process of ventilation 
is simple. When the sashes are closed and the front 
open the sun shines bright and warm through the win- 
dows into the most remote part of the building. The 
admission of fresh air and sunshine through the open 
front dries and tempers the atmosphere. When the 
weather is cold or stormy or when the wind is blowing 
fast or cold, or snow is coming into the house, ventila- 
tion may be had by entirely closing the open front with 
muslin-covered frames, as shown in Fig. 1 (cf), and open- 
ing the glass window a few inches as may be needed. 

A wooden shutter or ventilator as a substitute for open 
windows has been used at the Missouri State Poultry 
Experiment Station. This ventilator is shown in Fig. 1 
ie). It should contain 1 sq. ft. of surface for each 10 sq. 
ft. of floor space. The strips used in the construction 
should be 4 in. wide and set at an angle of about 
45 degrees, leaving a space of IJ in. between the strips. 
Where the weather is extremely cold, thin muslin can 



POULTRY .HOUSES 15 

be tacked over the inside of the ventilator and removed 
as soon as the cold weather is gone. 

Considerable attention has been given to poultry-house 
ventilation, and hundreds of suggestions have been made 
for different kinds of ventilators. The most recent ven- 
tilator is the Cornell wind baffler, vi^hich differs materi- 
ally from the Missouri shutter ventilator. The construc- 
tion of the Cornell bafifler is shown in Fig. 1 (/). This 
has L-shaped bafflers in place of the flat strips of wood 
used in the shutter ventilator. It would seem to be 
almost impossible for rain or snow to pass through the 
bafHer. More glass windows are needed for light in 
houses where shutters or baffler is used than in houses 
that have cloth-covered windows. 



POSITION FOR POULTRY HOUSES 

Position for Poultry Houses.— Houses for poultry should 
face toward the south; and to meet this condition con- 
siderable study in the arrangement and laj'out of the 
yard will be at times required. When poultry buildings 
are erected in the rear of the dwelling house and the 
front of the dwelling house faces the north, it is easy 
to have the poultry building in the rear face the south. 
If the dwelling faces the south, the poultry houses would 
have to be built facing south, at the rear end of the lot. 

In erecting a poultry house at the rear of the lot 
facing south, the rear of the building should be next to; 
the back fence so that the watershed of the roof will be 
away from the center of the yard. To have the neces- 
sary amount of sunshine and ventilation in a house so 
placed requires that the south end and a portion of 
either the east or the west end be of glass and open 
front, with the roosting place for the hens at the north 
end of the building. A house so built is shown in: 
Fig. 2. In this illustration the rear part of the poultry 
building is placed toward the east, the windows facing' 
the south and the west. The reason for locating the; 



16 



POULTRY HOUSES 



building on the east side is to gain the greatest amount 
of sunshine inside the house during the winter months. 
If the dwelling house faces the south, the poultry 
building placed at the rear end of the lot can face south. 
If the house faces the west, the rear of the poultry 
building can be against the fence on the north side; the 
same position should be used if the dwelling house faces 
the east. When the buildings are so arranged, good 
ventilation and the maximum of sunlight in winter will 
be assured. 



FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES 

The most efficient and economical style of poultry 
house is the straight-front, slant-roof building with open 




Fig. 2 

front or with glass and cloth-covered windows in the 
iront, constructed according to the needs of the locality 
where the house is erected. This type of house can be 
constructed with extreme simplicity, or it can be em- 
bellished according to the taste of the builder. Under 
no conditions, however, should it be built in a way that 
will detract from its usefulness. 

Wide houses are best suited to any locality where the 
laying hens must be kept inside for a considerable length 
of time during the winter months. Such houses are 
warmer, afford better protection from the cold, and are 
more satisfactory than narrow buildings. Houses from 



I 



POULTRY HOUSES 17 

18 to 20 ft. wide are generally favored, especially where 
j several hundred hens are kept during the winter. 

The open-front house should be of close construction, 
I with both ends, back, roof, and floor as nearly air-tight 
i as they can be made, and with a front having the proper 
i arrangement of open and glass windows. Such construc- 
tion is shown in Fig. 2, which shows a small house, well 
suited for the side of a city lot. The roosting apartment 
is to the left and the open runway to the right. This 
house allows 4 sq. ft. of floor space in the roosting apart- 
! ment and 6 sq. ft. in the runway for each fowl. That 
would be 20 fowls for 80 sq. ft. in the roosting house 
and for 120 sq. ft. in the runway. This house is intended 
for fowls that are kept shut in. When there is no danger 
of their injuring the crops, they may be permitted to 
run about in that portion of the yard used for a garden 
or for flowers. The runway can always be kept sanitary. 
When it needs cleaning, the fowls can be shut inside the 
roosting place, and with a hoe and a rake the filth can 
be scraped up, carried away, and replaced by fresh earth 
from the garden. 

Houses of this type can be built of almost any size 
required. If there is plenty of room in the yard, the 
runway may be made larger or an open runway added 
to the end of the closed run. A cover of canvas can be 
spread over the wire front to keep out heavy rains and 
j snow. When the weather is wet or cold the open front 
in the roosting place should be closed with a frame made 
of wood and covered with muslin. A covered runway 
affords dry footing for the fowls, and no opportunity for 
rain or snow to fall into the runway and make the 
ground unfit for the fowls to use. Such a runway can 
be kept sanitary if cleaned frequently, and such yards 
and houses will be a pleasure to the owner. 

For some reasons it may be better for the roof to slope 
away from the yard rather than toward it. In Fig. 2 
a tin water spout is shown that conducts the rainwater 
to the left of the building down to a cistern from which, 
the stored water may be taken for sprinkling the gar- 



S18 



POULTRY HOUSES 



■den. The water could be so stored even if the slope of 
the roof were toward the north. In that case, however, 
the heat of the southern sun would not serve to keep 
pipes from freezing or promptly to melt the snow on the 
sloping roof. 

The roosting place of the fowls should be located at 
the left in the rear of the building. The latticework 
shown between the open runway and the roosting place 




Fig. 3 
affords better ventilation during the warm nights of 
summer, and it also allows free circulation of fresh air 
into the roosting place without causing drafts. ; 

It is possible to keep poultry in the most densely 
populated sections of a town without offense to thfe 
neighbors. A suggestion for a model backyard poultry 
run in shown in Fig. 3. This is taken in part from a 
photograph made of poultry runs at Cheltenham, Eng- 
land. Two flocks of hens without males can be kept ixx. 
these runways. The roosting apartment in the rear end 
is equipped for two flocks; covered runways on each side 



POULTRY HOUSES 19 

are attractive in appearance and furnish plenty of room 
for exercise out in the open yet afford protection from 
the rain and snow that makes conditions quite unsani- 
tary when permitted to fall in small runways that are in 
constant use. 

The walks on both sides of the flower garden are made 

of cement. The gutters -a for drainage are laid along 

the front of the runways and next to the cement founda- 

I tion. The cement extends beneath both the runways and 

I the roosting place. A foot of closely packed earth is 

; filled in on top of the cement making a dry ground floor 

j for the runways. This earth can be dug out and replaced 

i by fresh earth as frequently as necessary, thus keeping 

the house and yards sweet and clean and avoiding all 

chance of offensive odors or contamination of the soil. 

Where there is sufficient room, the runways can be 

extended and used for young chicks. Where there is 

; not space enough for this, pullets for replenishing the 

■I flock must be raised elsewhere. This plan was intended 

[> only for the housing of hens kept for egg production, 

; but the same construction could be adapted for breeding 

j pens. 

The baseboards as shown in the illustration cover the 
cement foundation wall of the runways and the roosting 
place. Openings are cut through the rear wall of each 
runway; they are covered on the outside with heavy 
iron screen and are closed on the inside with shutters or 
doors hung on hinges. These doors can be turned up 
against the roof during warm weather. The free circu- 
lation of air through these openings will reduce the 
temperature inside the runways during the warmest 
weather. The same kind of ventilation can be applied 
to the rear of the roosting place. This would be neces- 
sary, however, only in tropical climates 'or where the 
nights are excessively hot. 

The front of the roosting house is 9 ft. high and the 
front of the runway is 8i ft. high, affording sufficient 
space overhead and better ventilation during hot weather 
than a lower house would give. Iron posts are attached 



^0 



POULTRY HOUSES 



to the rear end of the roof both on the roosting house 
and the runways. Heavy barbed wire stretched between 
these posts prevents approach from the rear. 

The arrangement of house and yards shown in Fig. 4 
was evolved in England to meet the food-shortage emer- 
gency. The house in the rear is an open-front, scratch- 
ing-shed house, in which the -poultry can be confined in 
all kinds of weather, especially when it rains and the 
ground is wet outside. The interior of the house can 
be arranged to suit the convenience of the owner. The 







Fig. 4 



Toosts should be placed to the extreme right of the 
house and the nests to the left of the roosts, to make 
it convenient for those who go into the house through 
the door in the center to gather the eggs and to clean 
up without disturbing the poultry. The vegetable garden 
and poultry "yard are alternated yearly. To make the 
change, the front fence and the line of fencing along the 
pathway should be moved over to enclose the garden 
patch for a poultry yard, the other side then being used 
as a garden plot. When this change is made, the front 
sections at the extreme right and left are changed so 



I 



POULTRY HOUSES 



21 



as to transfer the small doorway through which the hens 
come out into the yard. At the same time, the roosts 
and the nests are moved from the right to the left end 
of the building. 



HOUSES AND YARDS FOR DIFFERENT 
VARIETIES 

Special arrangements must be made for housing and 
yarding several varieties of chickens on a limited space. 




Fig. 5 

They must be kept separate, each variety by itself. To 
accomplish this, the fences around the enclosure and 
between the yards must be high enough and so well 
constructed that the fowls cannot get out of the yards 
alloted to them. The fences shown in Fig. 5 are 8 ft. 
high; these yards were used for Hamburgs and Bantams. 
The lower part of the fence is 2 ft. high, and is made of 
boards; the upper part is made of 6-ft. wire fencing. 
Fences 6 ft. high will do for Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
3 



22 



POULTRY HOUSES 



dottes, Orpingtons, or fowls of equal or larger size. A 
fence of this height would have wire fencing 4 ft. wide 
above the boards. 

The building shown in Fig. 5 is 12 ft. wide and 100 ft. 
long, and is divided into twelve compartments. The 
yards are 8 ft. wide and 24 ft. long and can be made 
longer when space will permit. One male and six or 
eight females can be kept in each compartment; more 
may be kept, but when this is done there is danger of 
contamination, loss of vitality, and less fertility. The 




/nterior Equipment 
Fig. 6 



house is 9 ft. high in front and 5 ft. high in the rear; 
there is an opening close to the roof in front and one in 
the rear, which should be left open during hot weather. 
This permits circulation of air through the house and 
between the rafters, thus driving out the heat; the rear 
opening is closed tight when the weather is cool or cold. 
The one in front is closed in the cold seasons. The 
house can be built lower, or there can be a lower ceiling 
to make the house warmer in cold weather. 

The doors that lead from one division to another should 
be hung on self-closing double-acting hinges. The in- 
terior equipment of one apartment is shown in Fig. 6. 



POULTRY HOUSES 



23 



The nests are under the dropping-board. The coops for 
broody hens are to the right of the roosts, the feed 
hopper is fastened against the partition or hung on the 
uprights, and the shelf for the water pan is to the right 
of the hopper. The pan goes through or under an open- 
ing in the partition, thus providing for two pens of fowl. 
A house of this kind will be excellent for bantams, 
and if not more than five or six of them are kept in each 
yard, green stuff of some kind can be grown in the 
yards. Such pens can be used for a male and four or 
five female bantams of any breed or variety, and the 
hens should be permitted to hatch their own eggs and 
raise the brood of chicks in the same enclosure. 



HOUSES FOR BANTAMS 

A house of small size is most suitable for bantams. 
The higher the roof and the more extensive the space 




Fig. 7 
inside, the colder and less comfortable will be their 
quarters during very cold nights. The box house illus- 
trated in Fig. 7 can be built out of packing cases that 
are 3J/2 ft. wide, 4^ ft. long, and of the average height, 
the front elevation of the building being 4^ ft. and the 
rear elevation 3>4 ft. The floor of the house, whieh is 
made first, is 4 ft. wide and 5 ft. long, and is elevated 
12 in. above the ground by cleats nailed all around on 
the under side flush with the edge. The walls of the 
house are nailed to the edge of the floor; the boards in 
the rear and on the sides reach to the ground and close 



24 



POULTRY HOUSES 



the space under the floor on three sides. In front, the 
boards extend 6 in. below the floor and to within 6 in. 
of the ground, leaving an open space a of 12 in. under 
the floor. When the siding is in place the roof is put 
OH and covered with roofing paper. 

One 8"X10" pane of glass in front admits all the 
light that is needed; the single-board door admits the ban- 
tams and permits the gathering of the eggs and the 
cleaning of the house. A round roost pole across the 
rear end and some small nest boxes complete the house. 
This house will provide quarters for ten or twelve ban- 
tams. It can be moved beneath the shelter of a tree 
during the summer months, placed under a shed or 




Fig. 8 



moved to the basement during the severe cold weather, 
or left in the open throughout the entire year. It is, in 
fact, a comfortable house for bantams in all kinds of 
weather. The dust bath for the bantams is beneath the 
house. When the nights are cold the open space a in 
front should be closed. In localities where it is very- 
cold, and where there are spells of severe weathef, the 
outside of the box should be covered with tar paper to 
close the cracks against the wind. 

For Braharaa or Cochin Bantams, a low, compact house 
is the best. These bantams can withstand the coldest 
weather if they are well protected as are other fowls. 
The house shown in Fig. 8 "is 8 ft. long and 6 ft. wide; 
it is 61-2 ft. high in front and 5 ft. high in the rear; the 
fence for the enclosure is 5 ft. high. If desired, this 



POULTRY HOUSES 25 

house can be divided through the middle and be used 
for two separate lots of bantams. When this is done, a 
division fence should separate the two pens. The interior 
of the house may be arranged to suit the convenience of 
the poultryman. The building has a double door, the 
inner screen door a swinging to the inside and the board 
door swinging to the outside. The outer door should be 
left open during warm weather and on bright days dur- 
ing cold weather to prevent dampness. The house should 
have a board floor. 



YARDS FOR POULTRY HOUSES 

Purpose and Size of Yards.— Fowls are confined in 
yards to prevent them from trespassing and from going 
where they may do harm or where they may injure 
themselves. They are also confined when an effort is 
being made to secure a large egg yield by intensive 
methods, and when several varieties of fowls are kept 
for breeding purposes, in which case the flocks must be 
kept separate in order that each breed may remain pure. 

Yards cannot be too large and are frequently too small. 
Less than 100 sq. ft. of yard room per head is not 
enough to secure the best results in producing eggs; 
a yard 50 ft. wide and 100 ft. long will be sufficient for 
fifty hens, provided special care is taken to keep the 
soil in a sanitary condition. If the yard is 100 ft. 
square, the fifty hens will do much better. Two and 
one-half acres will answer much better for five hundred 
hens in one flock than the same space divided into 
ten yards for fifty hens each. The reason for this is 
that when the five hundred hens are confined in the 
space of 25^2 A., each one has the free range of the entire 
area, and when the space is divided into ten yards, each 
fowl is confined to a space about equal in size to that 
of an ordinary town lot. 

Close confinement causes the flock to become discon- 
tented, and overcrowding the yard lessens the egg 
yield. If either one or both of these conditions is of 



26 POULTRY HOUSES 

long duration, the health and vitality of the fowls is 
undermined and destroyed. Asiatic fowls can be kept 
in health and vigor in much less space than can the 
American varieties; Leghorns must have more than 
double the space that is necessary for other varieties. 
These remarks apply to the keeping of laying hens and 
not to forcing a few fowls to an early maturity for the 
market on a space so limited that they neither produce 
eggs nor maintain vitality. The more closely hens are 
confined, the greater the necessity for cleanliness, care, 
and proper feeding. 



SHADE FOR POULTRY 

There is a great need of shade for poultry kept in 
confined quarters during the summer months. Poultry 
houses should face toward the south, because the direct 
rays of the sun are needed inside of poultry buildings 
to assist in keeping the interior dry and free from germs. 
But shade of some kind must be provided so that the 
fowls can be sheltered during warm weather when they 
are in the yard the greater part of the day. 

Shade may be furnished in a way that will add attrac- 
tiveness to the poultry houses and yards. The fences 
about the poultry yard should be built straight and 
strong and attractive in appearance, and they may be 
overgrown with vines of some kind which will serve as 
a shade and protect the fowls from the direct rays of 
the sun. 

There are a number of kinds of vines that can be used 
for this purpose. Throughout Maryland, Virginia, and 
other states there are honeysuckles that grow profusely 
and can be trained over the fences and over frames 
built for the purpose. There are several varieties of the 
rambler roses which can be trained over the fences and 
which will beautify the surroundings as well as furnish 
shade. Sunflowers may 1 e grown along the outside line 
of the fence. These grow rapidly and provide feed as 
well as shelter from the sun. 



POULTRY HOUSES 27 

Another vine, commonly known as Dutchman's pipe, 
is a profuse grower, and is often used as shade for poul- 
try. Hop vines, gherkins, and morning glories also may- 
be grown for the purpose of shelter. 

The use of Jerusalem artichokes for shade has been 
recommended because they grow quickly and come up 
year after year, affording shade in abundance. It is 
said that this plant can be grown inside of poultry yards 
if protected until it gets a good start, and that fowls 
will not eat the leaves even though no other green stuff 
is available. Castor-oil plants, where they can be pro- 
tected from disturbance until well started, will grow 
profusely and become very large, and will provide abun- 
dant shade beneath which the grovv^ing chicks may run 
and be protected during the warmest weather. 

Sweet corn makes a splendid shade for poultry. When 
fairly well up, the mother hens and young chicks may 
run through it without harming the plants or the ears 
of corn. When the corn is ready for the table the ears 
can be removed without breaking the stalks, which con- 
tinue to furnish shade. Corn fields on farms furnish a 
most attractive shelter from the direct rays of the sun 
and the fowls like to wander through them hunting bugs 
and worms. Some of the best exhibition fowls grown 
spend the first few months of their life kx the corn fields. 

When no other shade can be provided, awnings of 
muslin should be stretched over frames and placed so 
as to prevent the sun from shining too directly inside 
of the poultry buildings. Frames made like tables, with 
the tops of muslin or cloth of some kind, can be placed 
here and there to protect the fowls from the sun. Tar 
paper or building paper can be used in place of muslin 
for the same purpose. 



UNIT HOUSE 

The demand for houses for large flocks has brought 
into use a style of house that is called the unit house. 
A house of this kind may be built in two or more sepa- 



28 



POULTRY HOUSES 



rate units 20 ft. long by 16 or 18 ft. deep or wide. This 
would be called a connected unit house, meaning that 



a u a~ 



u a n a 



Dropping Boarcf 




Front Elevation 
Fig. 9 



several units would be built at one time or at separate 
times and used as separate houses or as one connected 
house. 

Such houses are built where laying hens are kept in 



POULTRY HOUSES 



29 



large or small flocks. The rule is to build them in mul- 
tiples of 20 ft. by whatever width or depth may be pre- 
ferred. Some unit poultry houses have been built 24 ft. 
square, with a gable roof. Houses of this width answer 




Fig. 10 



well for large flocks kept in California or in any other 
locality having like temperature. The best v>?idth for 
general use is 16 or 18 ft. 

The most modern type of a unit house is shown in 
Figs. 9 and 10. This house is 20 ft. long and 18 ft. wide 
and is 9 ft. high in front and 6 ft. high in the rear. 



30 POULTRY HOUSES 

This house has 360 sq. ft. of floor space and will be large 
enough for 90 Leghorn hens kept for laying eggs during 
the winter months. This same house will be large 
enough for 75 laying hens of the larger kind. The house 
can be divided by partition into two pens 10 ft.XlS ft. 

The advantage of this kind of house is that it can be 
built section by section as needed. Two sections like 
these might be called a double connected unit house. 
Any number of sections can be added to such a house 
and all of them connected. When two or more sections 
are used for large floors, the wooden partition between 
each 20 ft. should extend about half way forward from 
the rear through the house. 

As shown in Fig. 9, this house has the modern style 
of windows, that is, two glass and three cotton-cloth 
windows, which are shown in the front elevation. These 
windows are properly proportioned for a front 9 ft. high 
and 20 ft. long. If two units of 20 ft. each are built, the 
cloth-covered windows can begin either to the right or 
to the left of the glass windows and thus give a con- 
tinuous line of glass and cloth windows or they may be 
as shown in the illustration. The house can be built 7 
or 7j4 ft. high in front and be either 4J^ or 5 ft. high in 
the rear; the lower the roof or ceiling overhead, the 
warmer will the house be during both hot and cold 
weather. The two openings in the rear shown in Fig. 10, 
are for ventilation, and should be open continually dur- 
ing the warm weather. The air passing in through them 
will go over the roosts between the inner lining and the 
outer covering of the rear wall and the roof. "This will 
cool the house by carrying the hot air out overhead. 
These openings must be closed during the winter. 

The inner lining can be nailed to the uprights; it may 
extend from near the floor up the rear and overhead in 
front of the roosts and dropping-board. This protects 
the fowls on the roost from the cold that might other- 
wise be deflected from the rear and overhead onto them. 
Such protection is worth much more than it costs. The 
best arrangement for the interior is shown in Fig. 6. 



POULTRY HOUSES 31 

When houses like this are built for large flocks of 
laying hens, they can be built in sections 20 ft. long 
and 20 ft. wide. Five sections, or units, of this size, all 
connected, can be used either for one large open house, 
which will be 100 ft. long and 20 ft. wide, or it may be 
divided into five or more separate houses. 

Five units of this size will contain 2,000 sq. ft. of floor 
space, which is sufficient for 500 Leghorn hens; or they 
may be separated into five units, each house having 100 
Leghorn hens. Leghorn hens will^ do very well with 
4 sq. ft. of floor space for each hen. This will provide 
scratching place for the hens during the winter months. 
Fowls of larger sizes should have from 5 to 6 sq. ft. of 
floor space. 



HOUSING PROBLEMS IN CALIFORNIA 

When considering the climatic conditions of California 
it must be remembered that in that state, which extends 
from Oregon on the north to Mexico on the south, great 
variations in temperature are found. The northern lati- 
tude temperatures of California are about the same as 
those of Denver, Indianapolis, and Philadelphia. 

The conditions as they exist in California have been 
described in the following words by Prof. J. E. 
Dougherty of the College of Agriculture: 

"Abundant ventilation can and should be provided at 
all times of the year, because the climate is so mild 
that cold weather does not have to be considered, 
whereas the intensely hot days of summer represent the 
California poultryman's most unfavorable season just as 
the cold winter period is the worst season in other states. 
Where the temperature reaches the vicinity of 100° F., a 
house closed on three sides, even though the front is 
entirely open, becomes a veritable oven. Add to this the 
fact that a large number of our poultry farms are, under 
present conditions, supplied with very scant outdoor 
shade, and the fowls remain largely indoors out of the 
sun during the hot part of the day, and one can realize 



32 POULTRY HOUSES 

how they can be made to suffer from the heat in poorly 
built houses. 

"The hot summer sun dries up all vegetation not arti- 
ficially watered, the ground becomes hot and dry, and 
the fowls prefer to stay in and close to the houses where 
it is shady. They will not get out on the sun-baked 
ground, but live largely in the houses during hot 
weather. As a result, a good many fowls are lost every 
year from heat prostration. In fact, such mortality rep- 
resents a serious loss, and its prevention is a subject 
worthy of most careful consideration. 

"In order to obviate the hot-box condition, provision 
must be made to throw open the rear of the house on hot 
days, in addition to the open front, so that every breath 
of air may be caught and the air in the house be kept 
moving as much as possible. There is invariably at least 
a little breeze blowing from one direction or another, 
and by having at least two sides of the house open 
during the day these breezes circulate through the house 
and keep it quite cool." 

Very heavy rainfall accompanied with wind prevails 
during the winter in California. These storms are fre- 
quently so severe as to blow away cloth curtains, and 
for this reason they are not recommended as suitable 
for that locality. 

Mr. Dougherty says further that trees in the runs and 
about the houses are of great value in furnishing cool 
shade. Deciduous trees of heavy foliage are best, be- 
cause they furnish dense shade and shed their leaves 
in winter. Since evergreen trees do not shed their 
leaves, they ought not be located close to the houses, as 
they will cut off the sun from the houses in winter. Fig 
trees are especially fine for shade in the runs. The use 
of two-story houses also makes for coolness, for the 
upper story keeps the lower floor cooler than it would 
otherwise be, and by hanging windows on all sides of 
the lower floor the additional coolness resulting from free 
ventilation on all sides is secured. 

A good type of house for California is a square house. 



POULTRY HOUSES 33 

say 24 ft. square, or one 48 ft. long by 24 ft. wide, accord- 
ing to the number of fowls to be kept in the house. 
This house should be 9 ft. high all around with a gable 
roof, and have glass windows on all four sides. All of 
these windows should be kept open when the days are 
very warm. 

If the wind blows, the windows should be shut tight 
on the side from which the wind comes. When it rains 
and blows very hard, all the windows in the house 
should be closed except those on one side against which 
the wind does not blow; that is, if the wind blows from 
the northeast the windows on the north, the east, and 
the west would be closed and the windows on the south 
left open. If the wind blows from the southwest, the 
windows on the north would be left open and the other 
windows be closed tight. 

When a house of this kind is used, the roosts should 
be placed in the middle of the room lengthwise, directly 
under the peak of the roof. The dropping-board should 
be built on legs like a low-set table, the roosts running 
lengthwise above the table, with the nest boxes 
beneath it. 

Such a house should have ventilators in the peak of 
the roof; those of galvanized iron with hoods over the 
top are well suited for this purpose. Such ventilators 
will work weJI during all kinds of weather. When it is 
warm and hot, the air will pass out through them. When 
the wind blows it causes a current around the hood and 
the pipe; when the rain falls hard the hood-shaped lid 
on top will prevent the rain from beating down through 
the ventilator. Through these ventilators the warm air 
comes out of the upper end of the pipe and passes 
through the open space between the top of the pipe and 
the lower side of the hood. 



34 POULTRY FOODS 



POULTRY FOODS 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD 

Food is any substance that a plant or an animal may 
take into its body and use for building up wasted 
tissues and maintaining natural conditions. Besides 
Avater, which is present in all foods, the different com- 
pounds of which solid animal foods are composed have 
been grouped into four classes; carbohydrates, fats, pro- 
tein, and ash. All the compounds belonging to these 
clr.sses of food elements, or principles, are not completely 
digestible, and the value of poultry food is determined 
largely by the amount of these food constituents that 
can be digested by the fowls. 

When food is digested it forms blood, which circulates 
throughout the body and sustains life. By means of 
the blood the nutritious portions of the food are assimi- 
lated, or incorporated into the body of the fowl for the 
purpose of nourishing it and for renewing wasted tissues. 
Eggs are composed largely of the same kind of materials 
that are utilized in the formation of blood and flesh. 

All foods contain water; dry grains, meals, and hays 
contain from 7 to 10%, and grasses, green .plants, roots, 
and unripened grains contain from 60 to 70%. The flesh 
of fowls and their eggs are from 41 to 65% water, 1 doz. 
new-laid eggs containing almost 1 lb. 

The greater portion of the solid part of poultry food 
is composed of carbohydrates, or nitrogen-free extracts, as 
they are sometimes called. Carbohydrates are made up 
largely of starch, sugar, gums, vegetable acids, and crude 
fiber. Carbohydrates are used by fowls to supply energy, 
to produce animal fats and oils, and to maintain the 
body heat. 

The food elements known as fats, or oils, differ from 
carbohydrates in being able to produce more heat. For 
this purpose, 1 part of fat is equal to 2j4 parts of carbo- 



POULTRY FOODS 35 

hydrates. For this reason, when estimating the heating 
value of foods, it is customary to multiply the amount 
i of fat in them by 2j4 in order to express its equivalent 
f in carbohydrates. 

That portion of the food which contains nitrogen is 
known as protein. The lean meat of the fowl and the 
white of the egg are composed largely of this principle. 
As a source of heat and energy, protein is about equal 
I to the carbohydrates, but animal heat obtained from 
i protein is very expensive. Protein is much more costly 
I than the carbohydrates and fats, and no more of it should 
I be fed to fowls than is absolutely necessary to renew 
waste, make new growth, and furnish the needed quan- 
tity for &gg formation. 
That part of food which would be left if the food 
i \vere burned is called aSh, or mineral matter, and it con- 
I tains calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, and 
other elements. When assimilated by fowls, ash enters 
largely into the composition of bones and the shells of 
the eggs. There is not enough ash for egg and bone 
formation in the food usually fed to fowls, and for this 
reason it is necessary to supply them with such mate- 
rials as oyster shells, clam shells, limestone, grit, etc. 
Foods that, contain a large proportion of crude fiber 
j are spoken of as roughage, and those that contain little 
I crude fiber and that are nearly all digestible are known 
( as concentrates. Clover hay is an example of roughage; 
j corn meal is an example of a concentrate. Although or 
little direct value as a food for poultry, roughage, or 
crude fiber, is important in a food because in passing 
I through the digestive organs it distends them and serves 
■; as an irritant that stimulates their mechanical action 
i and assists them in digesting their contents. 

When feeding fowls it is always best to have a suffi- 
i cient quantity of ash, fiber, and roughage in their 
rations to extend the crop and to keep the gizzard 
I actively employed in grinding. During the process of 
I grinding the coarse foods become thoroughly mixed with 
ii the concentrated foods and all pass through the intes- 



36 POULTRY FOODS 

tines in a manner that makes their assimilation much 
more natural and, therefore, of more real benefit to the 
fowls than would be the case without them. 

Clover and alfalfa hay and bran are very highly con- 
sidered as roughage for poultry, and they not only well 
serve the purposes mentioned but are also valuable as 
food. Clover and alfalfa contain a large percentage of 
ash and fiber and are among the best substitutes for 
green food as well; although but little of the bran is 
digested, it is most valuable as an intestinal irritant. 

When feeding clover or alfalfa hay it is well to throw 
bundles of it into the houses on the litter and permit 
the fowls to pick the leaves and scratch in the hay as 
they do in the litter. 

Uses of the Food Elements.— After being digested and 
absorbed into the blood, the different food elements 
are used by the body for various purposes. From protein 
are formed the muscles, or lean meat, and this element 
also enters largely into the composition of the bones 
and feathers, and, most important of all, the egg. 
Protein can be more completely utilized than the other 
food elements and some hens seem to have the power 
to utilize practically all of the protein contained in the 
food they eat. 

Carbohydrates are mainly used to keep up the body 
temperature. The utilization of carbohydrates for this 
purpose is really a slow form of burning, which is just 
as necessary for the life of the fowl as the fire beneath 
the boiler is for the running of the steam engine. Car- 
bohydrates are also the source of much of the energy 
used when the fowl moves itself about and performs 
other work. 

The function of fats is similar to that of the carbo- 
hydrates. Fats, however, are a more concentrated fuel, 
1 lb. of fat being equal to about 2^4 lb. of carbohydrates. 
Fats can also be stored for future use in the fowl's body, 
a thing that cannot be done with carbohydrates. 



POULTRY FOODS 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS 



37 



FeedstuflFs 



Grains and seeds: 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Corn, dent 

Com, flint 

Emmer 

Kafir corn 

Millet seed 

Milo maize 

Oats, in hulls 

Oats, hulled 

Peas, Canada 

Peanut kernels 

Rice 

Soybeans 

Spelt 

Sunflower seed .... 

Wheat, whole 

Wheat screenings 

Meals: 

Bean meal 

Buckwheat middlings . . 

Corn bran 

Corn meal 

Cottonseed meal 

Coconut cake 

Flour, red dog 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy feed, chop. . . . 

Linseed meal, new proc- 
ess 

Linseedmeal ,old process 

Oatmeal 






10.8 
13.4 
10.6 
11.3 

8.4 

9.9 
12.1 

9.0 
10.4 

7.9 
15.0 

7.5 
12.4 
11.7 

8.0 

8.6 
10.5 
11.6 

10.9 

12.8 
9.4 

15.0 
7.0 

10.3 
9.9 
9.2 
9.5 
9.6 

9.7 

9.8 
7.9 



-550 



2.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.4 
3.9 
1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
3.2 
2.0 
2.4 
2.4 
.4 
4.8 
3.9 
2.6 
1.8 
2.9 

5.7 
5.0 
1.2 
1.4 
6.6 
5.9 
2.6 
2.0 
1.5 
2.7 

5.5 

5.5 
2.0 





Carbo- 




hydrates 


Cfl' 




« 








rV 




^r.i 


^k 




IS" 




^ 


U^ OJ 




Oi 




12.0 


4.2 


68.7 


]0.S 


11.7 


59.7 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


11.5 


11.1 


62.9 


11.2 


2.7 


71.5 


10.9 


8.1 


62.6 


10.7 


3.0 


72.2 


11.4 


10.8 


59.4 


14.7 


.9 


67.4 


23.7 


7.9 


50.2 


27.9 


7.0 


15.6 


7.4 


.2 


79.2 


33.5 


4.5 


28.3 


11.5 


11.5 


62.9 


16.3 


29.9 


21.4 


11.9 


1.8 


71.9 


12.5 


4.9 


65.1 


23.2 


.3.8 


54.9 


26.7 


4.4 


44.3 


11.2 


11.9 


60.1 


9.2 


1.9 


68.7 


45.3 


6.3 


24.6 


19.7 


14.4 


38.7 


IS.O 


8.0 


62.5 


25.0 


6.8 


53.5 


.33.8 


2.0 


46.6 


10.5 


4.9 


64.3 


37.5 


8.9 


36.4 


33.9 


7.3 


35.7 


14.7 


.9 


67.4 



38 POULTRY FOODS 

COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS— ConfinM^d 



Feedstuff 3 







i 
Carbo- 






hydrates 1 


. 






c 






<u 


^.r% 


i^r". 




^ ^ 


<^ 


u \-< 


^ ?. 


^t? g 


^ 


U.- 


S6 


S20 






""1 




4.5 


16.2 


7.1 


56.5 


4.9 


47.6 


5.1 


23.7 


2.6 


20.2 


14.4 


51.1 


9.7 


11.9 


12.0 


46.6 


8.1 


12.0 


5.4 


51.2 


4.4 


16.9 


6.2 


56.2 


5.9 


42.7 


6.0 


28.1 


6.7 


32.8 


13.5 


27.1 


5.8 


15.4 


9.0 


53.9 


4.6 


84.4 






37.4 


39.5 




6.3 


22.8 


20.6 




1.9 


.7 


4.0 




4.0 


29.2 


48.4 






4.1 


71.2 




.3 


.7 


3.6 




4.9 


.7 


3.1 




5.3 


10.6 


15.4 


33.3 


32.5 


4.5 


8.1 


17.5 


60.8 


1.0 


1.5 


.9 


8.0 


1.0 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


8.1 


16.32 


17.84 


45.99 , 


.9 


2.1 


.4 


17.4 


.5 


1.3 


1.7 


5.2 


1.1 


1.9 


1.2 


26.8 


.9 


1.3 


1.2 


6.3 



Meals: 

Oat middlings 

Peanut cake 

Pea meal 

Rice bran 

Rice meal 

Shorts 

Soybean cake 

Sunflower-seed dake . 

Wheat bran 

Animal foods: 

Blood, dried 

Bone and meat meal 

Bone, fresh cut 

Buttermilk 

Fish, dried 

Meat scrap 

Milk, whole 

Milk, skim 

Hay and vegetables: 

Alfalfa hay 

Beet pulp, dry 

Beets 

Carrots 

Clover hay 

Potatoes 

Pumpkins 

Sweet potatoes 

Turnips... 



8.8 
10.7 
10.5 

9.7 
10.2 
11.2 
11.3 
10.8 
11.9 

8.5 
6.0 
.34.2 
90.2 
10.8 
10.7 
87.1 
90.6 

6.8 
8.4 

88.5 
88.6 
10.0 
79.1 
90.9 
68.3 
90.1 



The preceding table gives the average composition 
of various poultry foods. 



POULTRY FOODS 39 

SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 

Foods the quality of which is unquestionably good are 
the most economical for poultry. Shriveled, immature, 
or imperfect grains do not contain the full amounts of 
digestible nutrients, and such grains are likely to be 
deficient in protein. When the best results are desired 
none except good, plump, mature grains are used. The 
same principle applies in selecting the by-products of 
grains. 

The relative value of poultry foods can best be esti- 
mated when the food value of each is well understood. 
It is usually more profitable to buy the foods rich in 
protein than those lacking in this valuable principle. 

WHEAT 

Whole Wheat. — A grain of wheat is made up of an 
outer shell, an inner lining, and a food center, its 
structure in a general way resembling that of an egg. 
The shell of the wheat kernel is composed largely of 
crude fiber; the central part contains some protein, but 
consists mainly of starch. The protein, or gluten, of the 
wheat is the most valuable part of it, and no other grain 
will fill the place of wheat as a food for the production 
of lean meat and eggs by fowls. Wheat is rich in both 
protein and the fat-forming principles, but it is a better 
food for making blood, flesh, and feathers than for fat- 
tening purposes; hence, it is a better food for egg- 
producing hens than for those intended for the market. 
Wheat is commonly one of the several grains used in 
making up a ration for fowls. Although the best whole 
grain for hens, it does not form a perfect ration when 
fed alone. 

Second grades of wheat can be purchased at a lower 
price than the higher grades. If they are sound and 
have good feeding qualities, these second-grade wheats 
can be used to advantage; but if they are shriveled or 
blighted, they have little value. Burned, wet, musty, or 



40 POULTRY FOODS 

otherwise damaged grains are not fit for feeding to 
poultry. 

The accompanying table shows the digestibility of the 
various food principles found in wheat of good quality 
Although about 20% of its dry matter is indigestible, 
wheat, on account of its palatability, is the best possible 
whole-grain food for fowls. 



DIGESTIBLE MATTER IN WHEAT 



Parts of Wheat 


Per 

Cent. 
Digest- 
ible 


Parts of Wheat 


Per 

Cent. 
Digest- 
ible 


Organic matter . . 


81.86 
77.12 
39.67 


Crude fiber 


None 




Carbohydrates 


86.59 


Fat 









Wheat Screenings.— The value of wheat screenings as 
a food depends on the quantity of weed seeds and other 
materials that are mixed with the wheat of inferior 
quality. Good wheat screenings have a food value equal 
to that of oats; screenings of poor quality have a food 
value that may be less than that of oat hulls or straw. 
Although fowls will eat a large portion of the weed, 
seeds in screenings, many of them have no food value. 1 
Wheat screenings as a food for poultry are used in con- 
nection with an animal food and corn. 

Wheat Bran. — The amount of gluten contained in 
wheat bran, which is a by-product in the manufacture 
of flour, determines its value as an egg-producing food. 
If the bran has the appearance of being kiln-dried, it 
probably contains so little digestible material that it 
is worthless as a food for hens. As dry bran free from 
gluten is practically all crude fiber, it is valuable only 
as a bulky substance for distending the intestines so 
that concentrated foods may be digested. 



POULTRY FOODS 41 

Middlings and Shorts.— The terms middlings and shorts 
are applied to by-products of the manufacture of flour. 
Wheat middlings are made from the membrane that lies 
between the outer shell and the starchy interior of the 
wheat kernel; they contain some gluten, a substance 
composed largely of protein. Shorts as usually sold arc 
made up of small, or ground, bran and wheat sweepings. 
Thirds, or fine shorts, are middlings of good quality. 
Middlings are worth more than bran and are much used 
in making dry-mash rations. 

Flour. — When it can be cheaply obtained, the lower 
grade of dark flour is sometimes used for feeding to 
poultry. This flour is rich in protein and other food 
principles, and can be mixed with middlings and corn 
meal. The resulting mixture may then be baked like 
bread and fed to young or growing chicks. A small 
quantity of this flour mixed with mash forms a crumbly 
mass. 

OATS 

Whole Oats. — The determination of the value of whole 
oats by their appearance is exceedingly difficult. Good 
oats rank next to wheat as a poultry food, but the one 
objection to oats is that they vary widely in the propor- 
tion of hulls, or husks, which are indigestible. Some 
oats are two-fifths husks, which are of no value as food. 
The weight of oats varies from 25 to 50 lb. per bu. Light 
oats are unfit for food for fowls; heavy oats with full, 
plump kernels are one of the very best. Hulled oats are 
preferable for feeding poultry; heavy-weight clipped 
oats stand next in value; ground oats of the best quality 
are also an excellent food for poultry. 

Oatmeal and Hulled Oats.— In the manufacture of both 
oatmeal and hulled oats, which have the same nutritive 
ratio, the hulls are removed; consequently, the food value 
of both oatmeal and hulled oats is greater than that of 
I whole oats. Oats thus prepared are extensively used in 
I making rations for young or growing chicks. Whole 
oats have a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6; hulled oats and 
oatmeal, 1 to 4. (By nutritive ratio is meant the ratio 



42 POULTRY FOODS 

between the protein and the total of fats and carbo- 
hydrates.) Consequently, prepared oats are better than 
■whole oats as food for young chicks and laying hens. 
Either hulled oats or oatmeal is one of the best single- 
grain rations for fowls. 

Oat Hulls. — As a poultry food, oat hulls, apart from 
their value as manure, which is small, are worth no 
more than sawdust. Ground oat hulls are liberally used 
as an adulterant to lessen the cost of other foods in 
preparing poultry feeds, and the presence of much of 
this adulterant may so reduce the value of the feed as 
to make it useless. 

CORN 

Whole Corn.— The structure of the corn kernel is 
similar in a general way to that of the wheat grain. 
Corn is the grain that is ordinarily the most attractive ] 
to poultry. Some corn is almost a necessity for suc- 
cessful poultry feeding, but an all-corn ration is 
injurious because it is too fattening. Corn alone, how- 
ever, will not fatten a fowl in the best way, nor will 
it produce a good yield of eggs. Corn is rich in carbo- 
hydrates and fats; it provides heat for the body, and 
oil and fat for the feathers, for the yolk of the egg, and 
for the flesh. Corn contains too little protein and ash 
for successful egg production, and to produce the best 
results is combined with other grains. A balanced 
ration is formed by the use of corn and some other 
grains and meat. 

Corn Bran.— The outside of the grain, or the shell, 
from which corn bran is made, is removed from corn 
when it is made into food products for human beings. 
This shell is hard and dry and has almost no food value, 
being composed almost entirely of indigestible fiber and 
a little ash, and is, therefore, of no use in poultry 
rations. 

Gluten Meals and Feeds.- Gluten, a by-product of corn- 
starch manufacture, is sometimes sold as gluten meal, 
and is a very important food for dairy cows. Good 



POULTRY FOODS 43 

gluten meal that does not contain corn hulls or other 
waste products is also useful as a part of the meal ration 
for poultry. Gluten meal is a concentrated food, rich in 
protein, nearly all of which is digestible. Not more 
than 10% of a ration should consist of this meal. 

The germ of the corn is rarely sold separate from the 
other by-products. Like gluten meal, it should be fed 
sparingly to fowls. 

Gluten feed, which is much more commonly sold than 
either gluten meal or the corn germs, is made by grind- 
ing the germs, hulls, and gluten together. Gluten feed, 
.although not so rich in protein as either the gluten meal 
or corn germs, should not be fed too liberally to poultry. 

Hominy Chop. — Hominy is made from the hard or 
flinty part of the corn. The hulls, corn germs, and some 
gluten left after the hominy is made, are ground into 
coarse meal and sold as hominy chop, which, if of 
good quality, is fully equal in value to corn meal as a 
poultry food. Like the value of all grain by-products, 
j the value of hominy chop depends on its quality, and 
! it should not contain too much crude fiber. 

Com Cobs. — The coarse meal made from corn cobs 
cannot be prepared in any way that fits it for food. 
It has about the same chemical composition as straw, 
and as food for poultry both corn cobs and straw are 
valueless. 

MISCELLANEOUS GRAINS AND SEEDS 
Kafir Com. — Both Kafir corn, or dari, and broom corn 
belong to the sorghum family of plants. The fact that 
Kafir corn is used largely as food by people of Africa 
and in other countries is evidence of its nutritive value, 
Kafir corn being, in this respect, about equal to barley 
or buckwheat. Kafir-corn grains are very hard; tests 
made by the feeding of old, very dry grains to fowls 
show that many of them passed through the fowls with- 
out being broken up. The same grains resisted for a 
time an effort to soften them by boiling. When broken 
into bits, however, the small pieces could be eaten and 



I 

44 POULTRY FOODS 

digested by young chicks. In some localities where 
bugs and worms are plentiful, the entire grain ration 
for the summer months is Kafir corn, a plentiful supply 
of insect food with this kind of grain making a nearly 
balanced ration. Kafir corn can be used with safety in 
the ration for the full-grown fowls, and, if broken into : 
small pieces, for chicks as well. 

Broom Corn.— The seed of broom corn as a food for 
poultry is about equal in value to sunflower seed. 
Broom corn is fed sparingly; a ration containing more 
than 10% of this grain cannot be fed with safety to I 
fowls. In order to avoid fermentation and mildew, the |l 
heads of the grain are spread out and kept in a dry 
place. Cryptogamic poisoning is liable to be produced by 
the eating of moldy grain or seed of any kind. 

Rye. — The use of rye as a food for poultry should be 
avoided; fowls do not relish it and bad results may come 
from its use. 

Barley. — The grains of barley, if plump and of good 
quality, contain almost as much protein as oats, more 
than corn, and more of the carbohydrates than oats but 
not so much as corn. Good barley is about 15% hulls; 
poor barley may have a much larger percentage of hulls, 
and the grains themselves may be so shriveled as to be 
valueless as food. Good barley meal is useful for form- 
ing a part of the meal ration for fattening fowls. It is 
one of the best meals for this purpose; but the ordinary 
barley meals are likely to be made of a mixture of 
barley and waste products, which tend to deprive the 
meal of its feeding value. 

Buckwheat. — Fowls have to acquire a liking for buck- 
wheat; they are not naturally fond of it, and as the 
hull, which forms a large percentage of this grain, is 
indigestible, buckwheat is not good as a single-grain 
ration. Buckwheat whitens the flesh and improves its 
flavor when fed liberally to fowls. The yolks of eggs 
from hens fed freely on buckwheat are light in color. 
Although a small quantity of buckwheat may be used 



POULTRY FOODS 45 

as a part of an all-grain ration, it is not classed as a 
desirable grain for fowls. 

Buckwheat Middlings.— The hulls of buckwheat have 
no feeding value, but in some localities they are used 
as litter in buildings and brooders. Buckwheat mid- 
dlings are superior to wheat bran and wheat middlings 
as a food for fov/ls, and this fact brings into the market 
buckwheat bran, which is largely broken hulls mixed with 
buckwheat middlings. Although the floury middlings of 
buckwheat are fit for poultry food, the bran of this grain, 
contains no nutriment and is useless for food purposes. 

Peas. — Although fowls relish pea vines, they must 
acquire a liking for peas themselves, which are very 
good food. The field pea, or Canada pea, as it is some- 
times called, is largely used as food for pigeons, and on. 
the whole is probably the best pea for other kinds o£ 
poultry. Low-priced, broken peas, if cooked, can at 
times be used to advantage. When they have been 
thoroughly softened by boiling, wheat bran is added to 
them to make a crumbly mass; a little flour put with 
the bran will help to make the mass stick together. A 
mixture prepared in this way is greedily devoured by- 
hens, and is an excellent egg-producing ration. Pea 
meal is a concentrated food that should be sparingly- 
used. Peas or pea meal added to a fattening ration. 
improve the quality of the lean meat. 

Beans. — As a food for poultry, beans are more nutri- 
tious than peas. Bean vines are not so well liked as the 
pea vines, nor will the fowls eat beans as long as they 
have other food before them. Soybeans contain much 
protein and ash; because of this fact they are valuable 
food for fowls. Beans should be boiled to a soft mush 
and mixed with corn meal and bran; this preparation 
makes an egg-producing ration. If sufficient corn meal 
is added, a fat-forming ration that will produce a good 
quality of table meat is made. Fowls are naturally- 
attracted to a mixture of this kind. Like other cooked 
foods, boiled beans may be fed to fowls while warm> 
but never while hot. 



46 POULTRY FOODS 

Rice.— Rice is a fat-forming food that is little used 
for poultry. Small or broken rice, however, may be used 
in chick feed to advantage. Boiled rice is a good food 
for bantams because it produces so little bone and size; 
it satisfies hunger but does not produce growth to any 
extent. It is an expensive food for fowls. 

Millet. — The seed of the foxtail millet is a rich grain 
that should not be fed liberally to poultry. When 
thrown into litter, the small, bright-colored seeds attract 
the fowls. A ration made up entirely of millet will 
destroy young chicks and injure old fowls. This seed 
is used to a limited extent in chick feeds, and also in 
scratching foods for hens. Millet' is a fattening food and 
■when hard, dry millet seed is liberally fed, it may clog 
the intestines or pass through them undigested. 

Sorghum Seed.— The food value of the seed from sugar- 
producing sorghum is about equal to that of the seed 
of broom corn, but sorghum seed is more fattening than 
the broom-corn seed, and contains a little less protein 
than that seed. Sorghum plants that make good green 
food for fowls are grown from sorghum seed sown broad- 
cast or drilled into the ground. 

Sunflower Seed. — Sunflower seed has a nutritive ratio 
of 1 to 7, about the same as wheat; but the digestibility 
of sunflower seed has not yet been accurately deter- 
mined. It is likely that the larger part of sunflower 
seeds are indigestible. The kernels have a pleasant 
flavor and contain considerable fat, but when dry and 
shriveled their food value is small. Fresh, plump sun- 
flower seeds are used to advantage by sparingly feeding 
them to fowls in molt; if these seeds are liberally fed, 
the digestive organs of fowls soon become clogged with 
indigestible fiber. 

Flaxseed. — Of all the grains and seeds fed to poultry, 
flaxseed is the richest in oil and protein. Its use is 
seldom necessary, because equal benefit can be derived 
by using by-products of seeds that are much less ex- 
pensive. Flaxseed is a laxative, but contains so much 
gluten that it may clog the digestive organs. 



POULTRY FOODS 



47 



Linseed Meal.— There are two kinds of linseed meal 
—old process and new process. The latter contains less 
protein and is more fattening than the former. There 
is very little old-process meal made at the present time. 
Linseed meal contains the feather-forming elements to 
a large extent and is valuable during molt; it can be 
cautiously fed at all times. Fowls do not favor it as 
a food; it is laxative, concentrated, and contains so 
much gluten that it will clog the crop if used too 
liberally. The quantity of linseed meal used should not 
exceed 5% of the entire ration. 

Cottonseed Meal.— Even when 
fed sparingly, cottonseed meal 
is not relished by fowls. Neither 
cottonseed nor any of its prod- 
ucts should ever be fed to fowls, 
as these foods act as irritants to 
the digestive organs, and if fed 
liberally cause death. 

Peanut Meal. — Meal made 
from peanuts after the oil has 
been extracted is a good food 
for poultry. It is a palatable 
food and can be used in small 
quantities with other fattening 
meals. An ounce and a half of 
peanut meal has about the same 
food value as 1 oz. of the best meat scrap. There is so 
little of this meal that it cannot often be used as food 
for poultry. 

Hemp Seed. — Hemp seed contains more fat and less 
fiber than sunflower seed; for this reason, it is more 
easily digested and gives better results than sunflower 
seed. Hemp seed is a stimulating, fat-forming food, 
and is fed in small quantities and only to fowls that 
are slow to molt. A small quantity of this seed is also 
fed to exhibition fowls during cold weather to improve 
the gloss on their plumage. Hemp seed is too expensive 
for general use. 




Light Brahma Male 



48 POULTRY FOODS 

Canary Seed.— The best known balanced ration for 
cage birds is canary seed; young chicks also enjoy a. 
little of this seed, on which they will thrive when they 
do not do well on other grains. All waste canary seed 
should be fed to chicks, but this feed is too costly to 
use except in an emergency or to save the waste from 
cage birds. 

Rape Seed. — German rape seed, or bird-seed rape, is 
a better food than millet seed for young chicks. It is 
a fattening food, rich in protein, and dark or chestnut 
brown in color. Rape-seed grains are smaller than millet 
seeds. For ailing or weakly chicks, rape seed is boiled 
for 5 min., turned into a fine, funnel-shapel sieve, and 
left to drain overnight. A small quantity of this food 
is given in the morning and evening. Only the true 
German rape seed is fit for this use. 



VEGETABLES 

Mangels. — Of all the vegetables and roots that are 
fed to poultry as substitutes for green foods, mangels 
are the best; they are fine-flavored, sweet, and nutri- 
tious, and impart these qualities to the meat and eggs 
of the fowls. No objectionable flavors are introduced 
into either the flesh or the eggs as a result of feeding 
mangels liberally. Mangels are rank growers, keep well 
throughout the winter if protected from frost, are easily 
fed, and are freely eaten by fowls. 

Beets. — There are many kinds of beets, all of which 
are eaten freely by poultry. If too many raw beets are 
fed, however, the bowels of the fowls may become so 
loose that diarrhea will result, especially if the use of 
beets is long continued. Raw beets should be sparingly 
fed, but if they are cooked they make a valuable addi- 
tion to a ration. 

Turnips.— -As a poultry food, turnips are not so desir- 
able as beets. If turnips are fed raw, they taint the 
flavor of the eggs and do not improve the meat of market 



I 



POULTRY FOODS 49 

poultry. The rutabaga is the best variety of turnip for 
poultry, but even this turnip will taint the eggs if fed 
freely. Turnips, parsnips, and carrots, when boiled to a 
pulp and mixed with the mash feeds, make good rations 
for all kinds of poultry. A very little salt should be 
put in the water in which the vegetables are boiled. 
Too much salt will kill poultry; fowls require much less 
salt than men. 

Potatoes.— When they are plentiful and cheap, potatoes 
are used as poultry food; 5 lb. of potatoes are about 
equal in feeding value to 1 lb. of corn meal. Potatoes fed 
to laying hens are thoroughly boiled, drained, and mixed 
with wheat bran, middlings, and ground oats; the same 
mixture will do for growing chicks, but if it is to be 
used for fattening purposes some corn meal is added to 
this ration. Meal that is made from small potatoes is 
used as a fattening food; this meal contains all the 
solid food of the potato and only a small percentage 
of the original moisture. The meal is an easly digested 
food, and it is used where potatoes are more plentiful 
than grain. Raw potatoes are not fit food for poultry. 

Onions. — Although onions are wholesome food for all 
kinds of fowls, their flavor is imparted to the eggs and 
meat of the fowls that eat them; for this reason onions 
should not be used when their flavor will prove objec- 
tionable. Turnips, onions, and potatoes may be boiled 
together and used in mash food for all kinds of poultry 
without harm, provided none of the mixture is fed for 
2 wk. before killing the fowls for market or selling their 
eggs for food. All of these vegetables can be safely 
used for hens when their eggs are to be used for hatch- 
ing and not for food. 

Cabbage.— Although not the best thing for them, cab- 
bage is a favorite food of fowls, and is often quite 
liberally fed. Cabbages are laxative, especially when 
they have been frozen. They also impart an odor to 
eggs that detracts from their quality. If cabbages are 
permitted to freeze and are carelessly fed they may 
reduce the egg yield materially, and may also cause 



50 POULTRY FOODS 

so much looseness of the bowels of the fowls that their 
health will be injured. Kale and Swiss chard can be 
used in the same way as cabbages. 

Apples. — No other fruit is more plentiful nor so gener- 
ally eaten as are apples. They are liked by poultry, 
and little chicks may be taught to eat them raw. Wher- 
ever sweet apples abound they can be cut up into small 
pieces and fed raw to little chicks. They may be sliced 
in root cutters and fed to fowls of all ages. When 
cooked and mixed with meals they are eaten greedily 
by livestock of all kinds. Apples and apple peelings 
cut into small pieces, cooked into a thin sauce, and 
mixed with meals are good feed for laying hens. 

Carrots. — For feeding of poultry, there is no more 
desirable root crop than carrots. The tops are relished 
by the fowls; and they are a succulent green feed for 
them. The roots may be fed raw to fowls of all kinds, 
both young and old. Raw carrots fed freely to laying 
hens are likely to impart color to the yolk and flavor to 
the egg. When cooked before feeding they impart but 
little color to the yolk and no flavor to the egg. Carrots 
contain a large percentage of water. The solids con- 
tained in them are mostly digestible. Boiled carrots 
mixed with meals are an excellent mash feed for lay- 
ing hens. 

Pumpkins. — For some reason there is an impression 
that pumpkins are not good feed for cows, hogs, or 
poultry. There does not seem to be any good reason for 
such a belief. Although pumpkins are not an excellent 
ration alone either for milk or egg production, they can 
be used for feeding to poultry of all kinds and to laying 
hens to good advantage. Pumpkins that are frozen or 
partly frozen are detrimental to the health of poultry if 
eaten raw; if cooked and mixed with meal they may 
be safely eaten but they are not so good for feed as 
when they are in good condition. For feeding to poultry, 
the pumpkins should be thoroughly cooked, stirred into 
a mash, and dried off with meals, in which condition 
they can be fed plentifully. 



POULTRY FOODS SI- 

GREEN FOODS 

Green, or growing, plants are valuable as food for 
poultry on account of the natural juices they contain. 
The tender blades of grass and other forage plants 
impart new life to fowls that feed on them in the spring. 
Chicks can be grown and fowls sustained without green 
food, but the difference between those that have it in 
abundance and those that do not is so marked that all 
question of its value is removed. 

Green food is at its best when gathered by the fowls 
from the field where it grows, but good results may be 
obtained by substituting clover hay or other dried forage 
for the green portion of the ration. This practice is 
necessary when the fowls cannot range extensively and 
whenever there is no available green food owing to 
climatic or other conditions. 

The green food consumed by fowls or chicks should 
not to be considered as a regular portion of the nutritive 
ration, but rather as a supplement to the grain and 
animal food. The composition and nutritive ratio of 
different kinds of green foods, that under various cir- 
cumstances and in different places have been found to be 
of more or less value for poultry food, are given in the 
table which appears on the following page. 

Vegetable Tops.— Poultry relish the tops of vegetables 
as green food. Trimmings from vegetables and the waste 
from fruit, cabbage, and roots, cut into small pieces, 
boiled to a pulp, and mixed into a mash of meal, make 
an excellent food for all kinds of fowls, both old and 
young. 

Grass. — Nearly everywhere grass of many kinds 
grows naturally or is cultivated for feeding, grazing, 
and hay making; none of the green foods is better for 
poultry. Where grass is naturally abundant, a supply 
of green food is always at hand during the growing 
season. But green food for winter use must be grown 



52 



POULTRY FOODS 



COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE RATIO 
OF GREEN FOODS 



Food 



Alfalfa 

Alfilerilla 

Barley 

Red clover 

Crimson clover . . . 

Corn „ 

Cowpeas . . . 

Blue grass 

Hungarian grass. . 

Orchard grass 

Oats 

Rye 

Rape 

Red top 

Soybeans 

Timothy 

Kafir corn 

Lettuce 

Artichokes 

Beets 

Beet leaves 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Pumpkins 

Rutabagas 

Sweet potatoes . . . 

Turnips 

Apples 

Onions 



1 

Dry 


Digestible Nutrients 








Matter 




Carbo- 




Per 


Protein 


hy- 


Fat 


Cent. 


Per 


drates 


Per 




Cent. 


Per 


Cent. 






Cent. 




20.0 


3.7 


7.3 


.6 


20.0 


2.1 


8.5 


.7 


21.0 


1.9 


10.2 


.4 


29.2 


2.9 


14.8 


.7 


19.3 


2.2 


9.3 


.4 


20.7 


1.0 


11.6 


.4 


16.4 


1.7 


8.8 


.3 


34.9 


2.7 


17.8 


.7 


28.9 


1.9 


15.6 


.4 


27.0 


1.9 


15.9 


.6 


37.8 


2.4 


17.9 


.9 


23.4 


2.5 


14.1 


.4 


14.3 


2.2 


8.6 


.3 


34.7 


2.6 


21.2 


.6 


28.5 


2.8 


11.8 


.6 


38.4 


2.1 


21.2 


.6 


27.0 


.8 


13.8 


.4 


4.1 


1.0 


2.7 


.8 


20.0 


2.0 


16.8 


.2 


15.7 


1.6 


11.9 


.1 


11.3 


1.7 


4.6 


.1 


15.3 


1.8 


8.2 


.4 


11.4 


.8 


7.8 


.2 


9.1 


1.1 


5.4 


.1 


11.7 


1.6 


11.2 


,2 


21.1 


.9 


16.3 


.1 


9.1 


1.0 


5.8 


.3 


13.0 


1.2 


7.5 


.2 


19.7 


1.5 


24.7 


.4 


9.5 


1.0 


7.2 


.2 


15.9 


.4 


14.2 


.3 


12.4 


1.4 


9.4 


.5 



POULTRY FOODS 53 

and stored, and in some places the supply for the entire 
year must be grown. 

Clippings of grass from the lawn are also good food 
for poultry that is confined in yards; or, if dried and 
stored, these clippings will be good for winter use. 
Either fresh or dry, they are valuable as litter for the 
floor of the brooder or brooder house. 

Fodder Corn.— Corn that is sown broadcast or drilled 
in rows produces tender, green stalks called fodder corn, 
which is relished by fowls that are confined; it 
is not preferred by fowls having their freedom, nor 
should it be fed after it has passed beyond a succulent 
or juicy condition. 

Alfalfa and Clover.— The tender leaves of all the 
clovers and of alfalfa are in much demand by fowls. 
They probably prefer alfalfa, or lucerne, to clover. 
After it has become well established, alfalfa will 
continue to grow for many years and will produce 
heavier yields of green forage and hay than any of the 
clovers. To raise alfalfa successfully, the soil must 
be adapted to the needs of the plant, and in many 
localities clover can be raised more easily than alfalfa. 

During winter months, clover hay can be used as a 
substitute for green food. Hay made from Red clover 
is most frequently used for this purpose, although hay 
made from any of the clover plants is good winter food 
for fowls. It may be used as litter on the floor, from 
which the fowls will help themselves, or the hay may be 
cut into small pieces and placed in a box for the fowls 
to work over. They eat all the leaves of clover hay. 
Bright, clean, early-cut hay is preferable to a dark 
hay made from cured plants. Ground clover and clover 
meal may also be used as food for poultry. 

Hay made from alfalfa is extensively used for 
poultry, and it may, like clover, be cut into pieces or 
ground into a fine meal before feeding. All forms 
of alfalfa are freely eaten both by old and young 
fowls, and alfalfa is not equaled by any other hay as 
a substitute for green food for fowls. Meadow hay may 
5 



S4 POULTRY FOODS 

be ground and mixed with alfalfa meal, but alfalfa is 
best fed without mixture or adulteration. 
Miscellaneous Green Crops for Winter Feeding.— In 

addition to those already mentioned, many other green 
crops are grown for winter feeding. A mixture of oats, 
peas, rape, and clover planted on the same ground and 
cut while green makes a good forage crop for fowls. 
First, sow 3 bu. oats and 2 bu. peas per acre and harrow 
into the ground; then, seed over the oats and peas 
with a mixture of 6 qt. clover seed and 1 qt. German 
rape seed. 



ANIMAL FOODS 

MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS 

Marked success in producing eggs and in growing 
poultry for the market cannot be obtained without the 
use of some animal food. 

Insects and worms form an important part of the 
food of wild birds and of domestic fowls whenever they 
are permitted to range. 

Lean Meat— Meat is an acceptable substitute for 
insects and worms. Lean meat is especially useful 
in the feeding of laying hens, for by using this food 
much protein may be added to the ration without in- 
creasing its bulk or using concentrated foods that 
impair digestion. The carcasses of horses and cows 
are composed mainly of lean meat and are used as 
poultry food. 

Meat Scrap. — There are two kinds of meat scrap, 
fat and lean. The latter kind contains twice as much 
protein as carbohydrates, while the former contains more 
fat than protein and very little ash. The best lean- 
meat scrap should be selected for laying hens; the more 
protein and the less fat the scrap contains, the better 
it is for the hens. Fat-meat scraps and fat or tallow 
are used in fattening special grades of table poultry. 

Animal Meal. — One of the numerous by-products of the 
slaughter houses is animal meal. The feeding value 



POULTRY FOODS 55 

of animal meal is higher than that of cut green bone; but 
better results are obtained from the use of cut green 
bone than from animal meal, because the former contains 
a larger percentage of ash than of protein— presum- 
ably because the meal is made 'from both bone and meat. 
Good meat meal is rich in protein but contains less ash 
than animal meal, and can only be used sparingly in 
making an egg-producing ration. Because of its cost 
and richness in protein, meat meal is used only when 
good meat scrap cannot be obtained. 

Dried Blood. — Dried blood and blood meal are some- 
times used to supply protein in foods for poultry. 
These blood products are concentrated foods and a 
small quantity of either mixed with other foods will 
make a narrow ration. Dried blood and blood meal 
are not generally economical or profitable foods for 
poultry. 

Cut Green Bone.— The food commonly called cut 
green bone is made by cutting fresh bones into small 
pieces by means of a bone mill. Being fresh meat, 
bone, and fat, its composition closely resembles that of 
bugs and worms, the natural food of fowls. About 
^ oz. of cut green bone per day for each fowl, mixed 
with wheat bran, will make a balanced ration well suited 
to fowls. 

Tainted Meat.— Tainted meat that is not fit for human 
food should not be fed to fowls. The taint of such food 
may sometimes be removed by boiling it in water 
containing baking soda, in which case the meat can be 
safely fed to fowls. 

Bone Meal.— Bone meal consists of bones of animals 
cleaned of all meat, fat, and marrow, and reduced to 
meal. It is used to supply any deficiency of lime, ash, 
or bone-forming material that exists in the ration. Bone 
meal can be fed to young chicks to produce a strong 
growth of bone. The particles in this meal vary in 
size from those that are very small to those of the size 
of whole wheat or even corn; the largest sizes are not 
desirable for poultry food. 



56 POULTRY FOODS 

Fish. — Fish that are handled for their oil are reduced 
in presses until little of their flesh remains. The bone 
and other residue are then ground into a meal. This 
fish meal and dried fish are sometimes fed to poultry. 
Fish products are liable to transmit a disagreeable 
flavor to the eggs or meat, and for this reason are not 
desirable. 

MILK 

Milk is a valuable poultry food, more valuable than 
its commercial analysis indicates. Nothing excels 
warm milk direct from the cow as the first ration for 
chicks. The use of whole milk as a chicken feed, 
however, will rarely prove profitable, for even when 
carefully handled it is not worth more than 2c. per qt. 
for this purpose. The most profitable method of feeding 
milk to fowls is to use it in moistening mash feeds. 

Some persons prefer sweet milk for poultry, but 
G. A. C. Wyllie, of the British Dairy Institute, Reading, 
England, says that sour milk has been found to give 
better results, as the acid produced by the bacteria 
present causes more rapid action. He states: "Soured 
milk also prevents scouring, and makes the food easier 
digested. The acid formed from the milk sugar also 
prevents sickness and stimulates the appetite. It keeps 
the digestive organs in proper activity, which saves 
feeding so much green food. When fed to all kinds 
of poultry it produces a fine white flesh, due to the 
amount of phosphates, with extra good flavor. It is with- 
out doubt one of the best foods we have both for young 
and old stock, and is becoming more popular every 
day. I may say it also increases the egg supply and 
hastens the molt." 

Skim-milk, sour milk, and buttermilk, may be im- 
proved for feeding purposes by scalding; but care should 
be taken not to boil, as boiling destroys the value 
and palatability. The whey of milk is of no value 
as a poultry feed. In the accompanying table is shown 
the composition and nutritive ratio of whole milk and 
of various milk products. 



POULTRY FOODS 



57 



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MINERAL MATTER 

Grit.— The food eaten by 
fowls goes first into the 
crop, where it is softened 
by water; it then passes 
into the gizzard, and by 
the action of small sharp 
stones, or grit, is there 
ground into a pasty mass. 
The best grit is sharp, ir- 
regular pieces of hard 
limestone about the size 
of corn kernels. 

Mineral matter is neces- 
sary for the good health 
of the fowls and for egg- 
shell-forming material. A 
deficiency of this in the 
regular ration may be sup- 
plied by grit, limestone, 
plaster, broken oyster 
shells, or shells of any 
kind. Granulated bone 
and bone meal serve the 
purpose fairly well, but 
the lime in shells is more 
quickly dissolved by the 
action of grit and gizzard, 
and hence is better than 
the bone. 

Charcoal. — Charcoal is 
one of the necessities of 
poultry feeding and should 
be kept constantly before 
poultry; it assists diges- 
tion, sweetens the crop, 
gizzard, and intestines, and 
prevents ailments of the 



58 POULTRY FOODS 

digestive tract. The charcoal, which should be broken 
into small pieces, should be supplied with the oyster 
shells and grit. 

Salt.— The use of salt in poultry food is not a 
necessity; but when a forcing ration is fed to fowls 
either to produce broilers, to fatten fov/ls, or to produce 
eggs, some salt may be used to assist digestion; 8 oz, 
of salt to 100 lb. of meal is enough to use; much more 
than this will injure the digestion of grown fowls, 
and it is positively unsafe to feed more to young chicks. 



POISONOUS FOODS 

Fowls sometimes die from ptomaine poisoning. For 
this reason putrid meat, spoiled grain, and other fer- 
mented or spoiled foods should not be fed. Foods that 
are otherwise wholesome may be made unwholesome if 
exposed to dampness, due to the development of molds. 

Excessive quantities of salt, salt meat, or the brine 
from which the meat has been removed, salt fish, salt 
from ice-cream freezers, and in fact, salt of any kind 
consumed in large quantities is very destructive to 
poultry. 

Solutions of sulphate of iron or of sulphuric acid, 
carelessly used, are very destructive to poultry. 

Decayed vegetables or fruits, fermenting waste, waste 
from cider mills or canning factories, and slops from 
distilleries are not suitable for feeding to laying hens, 
because they flavor the eggs. Tainted meat eaten by 
a fowl will also influence the flavor of eggs. 

Moldy bread is detrimental to poultry. It may be 
freed from mold by toasting or baking it dry and hard, 
but when so prepared it is not fit food for chicks under 
6 wk. old. 



INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 



59 



INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 

The process of digestion in poultry differs materially 
from that in animals that chew their food. Fowls have 
no teeth, the functions of the teeth being performed 
by the gizzard, in which, by the aid of grit, the food is 




Fig. 1 



ground into pulp. The greater part of the food eaten 
by poultry is swallowed wiiole and passes in that 
condition to the crop, where it absorbs considerable 
moisture before it passes to the other digestive organs. 
A general view of the internal organs of a hen is 
shown in Fig. 1. After being picked up by the bill, the 



60 INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 

food passes through the upper part of the esophagus 
a into the crop b; from the crop the food passes through 
the lower part of the esophagus into the gizzard c; 
and from there through the other organs of the digestive 
system. 

Crop. — In fowls and other granivorous, or grain-eating, 
birds, the crop is relatively larger than the crop of 
birds that feed largely on grass. Within the crops are 
juices that moisten the food and hasten its passage into 
the gizzard. 

Gizzard. — The gizzard c may be looked on as a power- 
ful grinding machine in which the whole grain and 
other foods of poultry are ground, oftentimes finer 
than they would be ground by the teeth of chewing 
animals. The grinding is accomplished by means of 
the powerful muscles of the gizzard, which keep the 
mixture of sand, grit, and food within it constantly in 
motion. In the gizzard the food is also acted on by 
digestive juices before being passed into the intestines. 

Intestines. — The intestines as applied to fowls means 
all of the alimentary canal beyond the gizzard. The 
intestines of the fowls, although different in many 
respects from those of other animals, present a somewhat 
similar appearance and have functions nearly identical 
with those of the other domestic animals. In fowls, the 
intestines are made up of the duodenum, and the rest 
of the small intestines d, the caeca e, and the large 
intestines and the rectum g. Inside of the intestines the 
food is acted on b/ various digestive fluids, and 
digestible nutrients within the food are taken from it 
and eventually converted into blood. The inner walls 
of the intestines are covered with minute projections 
known as villi, which absorb the digested material 
from the contents of the intestines. The indigestible 
part of the food passes into the rectum g and out of 
the body through the vent h. 

Liver. — The liver i is a large, two-lobed organ of 
peculiar cellular structure. It has two offices, one of 
them being to purify the digested material brought to 



INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 61 

it by the capillaries, and the other to secrete the bile, 
an important digestive fluid. The liver must be kept 
in a nealthy condition or the blood, and consequently 
the entire system, will speedily become poisoned. 

Gall Bladder. — The gall bladder k serves as a reservoir 
ior the bile secreted by the liver, to which it is closely 
attached. The Dile is passed, as needed, from the gall 
bladder to the intestines, where its special office is 
to break up the vegetable fats and oils and convert them 
into soluble animal tat, which is readily made a part of 
the fowl's body. 

Spleen.— The spleen 5 is located near the liver and is 
an organ whose use is not definitely known. It is 
thought, however, that it is useful in producing certain 
modifications in the blood. 

Pancreas. — Situated among the folds of the small 
intestines is the pancreas /, a small organ of insig- 
nificant appearance. This organ is of vital importance, 
for in it is secreted the pancreatic juice, which flows 
from the pancreas into the intestines, where it acts 
directly on the starchy portions of food, and to a 
limited extent on protein; it also aids in the absorption 
of fat. The juice from the pancreas unites with the bile 
and they together flow over the foods as they come from 
the gizzard. 

Heart and Lungs.— The heart m and the lungs n are 
vital organs. The work done by the latter, like that 
of the liver, consists in purifying the blood. The office 
of the heart, as is well known, is to pump the blood 
to all parts of the body. The heart, lungs, and liver may 
be considered as the most important organs of the body, 
and care should be taken to keep them m good working 
order, for when the action of one of these organs is 
faulty, the effect is soon apparent on the others. The air 
is supplied to the lungs through the windpipe w. 

Kidneys.— The kidneys are located, in cavities in 
the pelvic bone. They act on the blood and separate 
from it liquid waste material, which is eventually passed 
from the body through the vent. 



62 INTERNAL ORGANS OF FOWLS 

Ovaries and Oviduct.— The ovaries p and the oviduct q 
are shown enlarged in Fig. 2. The ovaries a (Fig. 2) 
are attached to the under side of the backbone, usually 
on the left. The ovaries 
and the oviduct are the 
female organs of repro- 
duction. The yolk of the 
egg attains its full size 
within the casing of the 
ovaries, which, in good 
laying hens, contain 
yolks varying in size 
from that of a small pin 
head to that of the full- 
grown yolk. As soon as 
the yolk has reached its 
full development, the 
casing of the ovary, or 
ovisac, as it is sometimes 
called, opens and the 
yolk passes into the ovi- 
duct c. The yolk may or 
may not be fertilized by 
the male element before 
or just after entering the 
oviduct. 

The oviduct varies in 
length, and in some cases 
it is nearly 2 ft. long. As 
the yolk passes through 
the oviduct it becomes 
covered with albumen, of 
which the white of the 
egg is composed, and 
with a double membrane, 
or the lining to the egg- 
shell. After the egg has reached its full size the shell is 
formed about it in the oviduct. The passage of the egg 
through the oviduct requires from 6 to 18 or 20 hr. 







Fig. 2 



FEEDING OF FOWLS €3 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 

In poultry feeding it is necessary not only to provide 
fowls with a ration properly balanced in the food 
elements, but the ration must also be of a character 
most suitable to the digestive organs of the fowls. 
In addition to this the fowls must be forced to take 
sufficient exercise so that their bodily functions will 
demand a plentiful supply of food, be in a condition 
to secure the best results from the food that is eaten, 
and be able to eliminate readily all waste materials. 

When fowls take sufficient exercise, the only secret of 
keeping their digestive organs in the best condition will 
be found in feeding them a plentiful supply of coarse 
feed like bran, or some of the succulent green food^ 
such as cut clover, cut grasses, vegetables, or fruits. 
These foods will distend the intestines and aid in dis- 
tributing the concentrated foods that are necessary 
for upbuilding the tissues of the body and for egg 
production. To induce fowls to take considerable 
exercise, a certain part of their grain food should be 
scattered in the litter of the houses and on the ground 
of the ranges so that they will be compelled to scratch 
to get it. 

When kept actively exercising, fowls will not eat more 
than their digestive organs will be able to handle 
easily, provided fattening foods are not fed in excess 
and the ration is well balanced for egg production. 

Despite the necessity of a certain quantity of coarse 
food to regulate their digestive organs, fowls must be 
fed as little indigestible matter as is consistent with the 
maintenance of their health and of a well-balanced 
ration. For instance, hens cannot thrive on a ration 
made up entirely of even the best grade of oats, and 
when oats are fed that are three-fourths husks, all the 
hens can possibly stuff themselves with will do little 
more than barely sustain life and will produce but 
few eggs. Chick feed and feed for full-grown fowls 



64 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 



that is largely indigestible will seriously injure those 
that eat it. It is possible for chicks and full-grown 
fowls to dwindle away with their crops stuffed full of 
indigestible material. The fact that a fowl's crop is 
distended with food is no proof that it has been well 
fed. Hence, the only actual proof of the value of any 
particular feed for fowls lies 
in the results that are ob- 
tained from it. 

As a part of the daily ra- 
tion, water is equal in im- 
portance to grain. Without 
water, the food would not be 
softened in the crop and di- 
gestion would not go on. 
Blood, eggs, and meat are all 
largely water; even the bones 
and muscles are dependent on 
moisture for growth. Pure 
Barred Plymouth Rock water is an absolute necessity 
for poultry; if the drinking 
water is tainted, putrid, or 
disease is sure to follow its 
use. A gallon of fresh water each day is not too much 
for 2 doz. hens. A plentiful supply of pure water from 
which they can help themselves must be constantly kept 
within reach of fowls. 

The composition of fowls and fresh eggs is shown in 
the accompanying table. The large percentage of water 




Female 
contaminated with germs 



COMPOSITION OF FOWL AND EGG 





Water 
Per 
Cent. 


Ash 

Per 

Cent. 


Protein 

Per 

Cent. 


Fat 
Per 
Cent. 


Hen 


55.8 
55.4 
41.6 
65.7 


3.8 

3.4 

3.7 

12.2 


21.6 
21.2 
19.4 
11.4 


17.0 


Pullet 


18.0 


Capon 


33.9 


Fresh egg 


8.9 







FEEDING OF FOWLS 



65 



in them emphasizes the necessity for a plentiful supply 
of water. 



WEIGHT OF POULTRY FOODS PER QUART 





Food 


Weight 
Pounds 


Alfalfa meal 


1.0 


Barley whole 


15 


Barley meal . ... 


1 1 


Beans 


1.9 


Beef 


1 5 




1.3 


Corn whole 


1.7 




1.5 




.9 


Corn and oat food 








1.5 


Gluten feed 


1 3 




1.7 


Hemp seed 


1.4 




1.1 


Kafir com 


1.7 




.9 


Linseed meal, old 


process 


1.1 


Millet 




1 6 




1.0 


Oats, ground 




Peas 


1.9 


Rice 


1.7 


Rye, whole 


1.7 


Rye, ground 


1.5 




1.4 


Salt 


2.5 


Shorts 


.6 


Wheat, whole 


1.9 


Wheat, ground 


1.7 


Wheat bran 


.5 






.8 


Wheat middlings 


Hour; 


1.2 



Weight of Poultry Foods per Quart.— In the mixing 
of rations for poultry the weights of poultry foods per 
quart as given in the preceding table are useful. 



(>e FEEDING OF FOWLS 

FEEDING OF YOUNG CHICKS 

No food is given to young chicks for the first 48 hr., 
but grit of some kind is supplied to clean out their 
digestive organs. Beginning with the third day, they 
may have stale bread moistened with sweet milk and 
pressed until nearly dry. For the next 2 or 3 da. a mix- 
ture of stale bread crumbs and fine oatmeal makes a 
good ration, and is better fed in small quantities at 
frequent intervals. 

For chicks that are a week or more old, a simple 
ration can be made of 4 parts, by weight, of cracked 
corn, 2 parts of broken wheat, 2 parts of oatmeal, and 
2 parts of granulated meat scrap. The corn should be 
broken into small pieces and the meat scrap must be 
of good quality, rich in protein, and of small size; meat 
scrap that contains fat is not fit to use in this ration. 
After the chicks are 6 wk. old, a ration made of cracked 
corn, whole wheat, hulled oats, and meat scrap can be 
used. In addition to the grain and meat ration, grit, 
green food, broken sea shells, or bone meal are neces- 
sary for young chicks. All food fed to chicks should 
be in small particles to avoid disorders in the crop and 
digestive organs. 

Green stuff of some kind should be fed continually 
after the chicks are 3 or 4 da. old. Sprouted oats, lawn 
clippings, vegetable tops of any kind, and lettuce may 
all be fed. It is best to cut them into very small pieces 
before feeding. There is no danger of poultry of any 
age having too much green feed. Partly-grown chicks 
and older fowls will get a plentiful supply of this if 
given free range where it is abundant. When kept in 
confinement, they should have a plentiful supply of 
green stuff fresh every day. 

One of the most successful poultry growers and exhibi- 
tors of New England feeds his little chicks for the first 
day or two on a baked cake made of 2 parts of bran, 
2 parts of corn meal, and 1 part of wheat middlings, with 
just enough sweet milk or water to make a dry, crumbly 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 67 

mass. This is baked in the oven until thoroughly done. 
When cool, this cake is rubbed into crumbs and fed to 
the chicks, a little fine grit being sprinkled on the 
board where the cake is spread. This is fed to the 
chicks every 2 hr. ; they should have only as much as 
they will eat up clean. After the second day, hoppers 
containing a dry mash composed of 2 parts of wheat bran 
and 1 part of corn meal should be placed where the chicks 
can help themselves. A hopper filled with charcoal, grit, 
and- very fine oyster shell is also used. 

After the first week the same feeding is continued, 
with the addition of some grain, chick feed being scat- 
tered in the litter for the chicks to scratch for. After 
the second week but one feed a day of the baked cake 
is given to them, the remainder of the ration being 
composed of the grain chick feed. After the second week 
some hard-boiled egg chopped up very fine and mixed 
with the cake is given to the chicks. This is fed once 
a day for 2 or 3 wk. 

After the third week the chicks are fed very small 
size cracked corn in place of the chick feed, and the 
baked cake is omitted, the hoppers of dry mash being 
kept before them all the time. In addition to this they 
should have sprouted oats fresh each morning. Sprouted 
oats is considered of equal importance with the other 
feeds. 

Until they are well grown the chicks are fed con- 
tinually with some broken grain composed of wheat, 
corn, and hulled oats, which is scattered in the litter 
to furnish plenty of exercise. As soon as the chicks can 
run out of doors there is less need of feeding the 
sprouted oats, provide'd they can get growing greens on 
the outside. 

CORNELL FEEDING SCHEDULE 

The Poultry Department of Cornell Agricultural 
College recommends that chicks be fed from the first to 
the fourth day with rolled oats, 8 parts; bread crumbs, 
8 parts; sifted beef scrap, 2 parts; bone meal, 1 part. 



68 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

This is moistened with sour skim-milk, and fed five 
times daily. Cracked grain mixture should be left before 
the chicks in a shallow tray containing a little dry mash 
like that given in later feeding. This grain mixture is 
composed of finely cracked wheat, 3 parts; finely cracked 
corn, 2 parts; pinhead oatmeal (steel-cut oatmeal), 1 part. 
Fine grit and charcoal mixed with grain, and a little 
finely shredded green food, should be scattered in the 
trays. Plenty of clean water should be supplied at all 
times. 

For subsequent feeding, the following mash moistened 
■with skim-milk should be gradually substituted for the 
first mixture: Wheat bran, 3 parts; corn meal, 3 parts; 
wheat middlings, 3 parts; sifted beef scrap, 3 parts; 
bone meal, 1 part. The moist mash should be fed two 
or three times daily. Cracked grain should be given at 
least twice daily, scattered in light litter as soon as the 
chicks are able to find it. Mash in dry condition should 
be kept in shallow trays before the chicks. Grit, char- 
coal, and fine cracked bone should be fed in separate 
trays or hoppers. When 4 wk. old, the chicks should 
be receiving two meals of mash and three of grain. 

After 4 wk. the number of meals should be reduced, 
first to two of mash and two of grain, then to one of 
mash and two of grain; the grain should be fed morning 
and night and the dry mash should be constantly acces- 
sible. As soon as the chicks will eat larger grains, the 
wheat need not be cracked; hulled oats may be used in 
place of pinhead oatmeal, and the corn may be coarsely 
cracked. When the chicks are 8 wk. old, the grain 
ration may be changed to the following: Large cracked 
corn, 3 parts; wheat, 2 parts. If it is desired that the 
chicks shall develop slowly, the moist food may be 
gradually discontinued after 3 wk. Beef scrap may 
be fed in the mash up to one-fourth by weight, in quan- 
tity, or, after the chicks have become accustomed to it, 
may be kept constantly before them in hoppers. This 
method of feeding has been proved to be good where all 
feeds are to be purchased. Farmers having certain prod- 



:.^j 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 69 

nets of their own may modify it to advantage. Soured 
skim-milk and table scraps will largely replace beef 
scrap, particularly if chicks are on free range. Bread 
moistened with milk is a good food for the first day or 
two. Scalded clover leaves, either alone or mixed with 
other feeds form a valuable addition to the rations, and 
chicks a week old will eat wheat screenings. Buck- 
wheat, barley, or rye should not be fed to young chicks. 



FEEDING OF LAYING HENS 

There has been so much written relative to feeding 

laying hens that one is at a loss to know just where 

to begin and what method to adopt. However, it may 

be said that a ration for laying hens is not suitable 

unless it contains enough of the food principles to main- 

J! tain the bodily growth and to supply sufficient material 

1; for the production of eggs; that is, protein, fats, carbo- 

[ hydrates, ash, and water must be plentifully supplied 

and in the proper proportions. 

A few suggestions that might be followed as a guide 

for selecting a ration to be fed to hens are given here. 

Never feed a ration containing any considerable amount 

of fattening feed during the summer months, nor in a 

climate that is continually warm. An all-corn ration 

will not produce many eggs in winter, neither will a 

ration composed entirely of wheat and oats do much 

better. It is not necessary nor advisable to feed many 

i different kinds of grain, and, above all, a grain mixture 

j should not be fed unless its grain content is such as will 

j; produce eggs. 

The most rapid assimilation and transformation of 
I feed into table products is accomplished by the hen and 
the cow; the former is most active and when in good 
producing condition transforms the food consumed into 
eggs even more quickly than the cow transforms her 
i food into milk. Doctor Jordan, of the New York Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, says: "If you will con- 
6 



70 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

sider the dry matter of the hen and compare it with the 
dry matter of the eggs she lays in a year, there will be 
figured SYz times as much dry matter in the eggs as in 
her whole body. The weight of the dry matter in a 
cow's body will be to the weight of the dry matter in 
the milk as 1 is to 2.9. In other words, based on the 
dry matter, the hen does twice as well as the cow." 
This indicates more activity and a greater amount of 
assimilating power by the hen than by the cow. 

The hen that lays 150 eggs per year will, if these eggs 
weigh 2 oz. each, have laid 300 oz. of eggs. Of this, 
approximately 10% is protein; that is, 30 oz. of protein 
is extracted from her feed. The hen will need more 
than three times as much protein as her egg yield con- 
tains to sustain her body during the year, which would 
be in all 120 oz. of protein, or 7J^ lb. If the entire grain 
ration of the hen were composed of wheat, and if she 
should eat 100 lb., which is the average ration for a year, 
there would be only a little more than 9 lb. of digestible 
protein in her year's supply. If the hen should extract 
7 lb. of protein from the 9 lb. of protein contents in the 
wheat, she would be doing remarkably well. To accom- 
plish this she would need to gain 70% efficiency from the 
food consumed. 

Professor Patterson, of Missouri, has advanced the 
theory that the best G.gg yield will be secured from hens 
that are fed a ration that contains about equal propor- 
tions of yolk-forming material and white-forming mate- 
rial. He believes that if the hens are fed in this way 
they will produce more eggs than if fed otherwise. 
These suggestions might be called experimental. The 
only way of knowing to a certainty whether or not this 
is true will be through practical experience or from 
giving the suggestion a fair trial and noting the results. 
The grain ration suggested is a mixture of 150 lb. of 
cracked corn and 150 lb. of wheat. For a dry mash, 20 lb. 
each of wheat bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, ground 
oats, and gluten meal, with 30 lb. of beef scrap, 5 lb. of 
alfalfa meal, and S lb. of linseed meal, is recommended. 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 71 

For a ration for laying hens that have free range. 
Professor Patterson suggests 150 lb. of cracked corn, 150 
lb. of wheat, and 25 lb. of beef scrap. The beef scrap, 
of course, would need to be fed from the hopper. 

Another suggestion for feeding laying hens that have 
free range is a mixture of 100 lb. of wheat, 100 lb. of 
corn, and 50 lb. of oats or buckwheat. A dry mash to 
be used with this is composed of 20 lb. of bran, 10 lb. of 
corn meal, 10 lb. of wheat middlings, 10 lb. of beef scrap, 
and 10 lb. of gluten meal. The difference between these 
two rations is that the grain ration contains SO lb. of 
buckwheat and the beef scrap is fed in the mash. This 
ration may be obtained in almost every locality, and 
the hens that are fed with it may do fairly well at egg 
production. 

MODERN METHODS OF FEEDING 

The most modern method of feeding laying hens has' 
been established as a result of the egg-laying contests 
that have been held in several parts of the world. The 
information gained from these experiments has estab- 
lished the feeding of a double ration, or a ration com- 
posed partly of whole or broken grains and partly of a 
dry-mash mixture. In some cases, the grain mixture 
is fed from self-feeding hoppers; in other cases, the grain 
is hand fed into the litter. In all cases the dry mash 
should be fed from hoppers. 

An excellent ration for laying hens which can be fed 
in all localities — north, south, east, and west — for 12 
months of the year, and which will produce a satisfactory 
egg yield, is as follows: 

Dry Mash Scratch Grain 

Wheat bran, 100 lb. Cracked corn, 30 lb. 

Corn meal, 50 lb. Whole wheat, 30 lb. 

Gluten feed, 50 lb. Heavy white oats, 20 lb. 

Ground oats, 50 lb. Barley, 10 lb. 

Wheat middlings, 35 lb. Kafir corn, 10 lb. 

Beef scraps, 35 lb. Buckwheat, 10 lb. 
Low-grade flour, 12 lb. 



72 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

Mix the beef scraps with the flour. After this has been 
thoroughly done mix them into the other meals. Put' the 
dry mash in a self-feeding hopper, and keep it before 
the fowls constantly so that they can help themselves. 
Feed the scratch grain in deep litter so that the hens 
must scratch and dig for all they get; feed it twice a 
day, morning and afternoon, giving for each hen about 

1 oz. of grain in the morning and 2 oz. in the afternoon. 
The hens must have a plentiful supply of green food, all 
they will eat of it; also grit, oyster shell, and plenty of 
water. 

Another method of feeding is to give no grain at all 
until after 2 o'clock in the afternoon, thus compelling 
the hens to eat freely of the dry mash from daylight; at 

2 o'clock scatter in the litter 3 oz. of the grain mixture 
for each hen. Where self-feeding grain hoppers are used 
they can be locked at night so that no grain can be 
worked out, thus forcing the hens to eat dry mash all 
day until 2 o'clock, at which time the self-feeding grain 
hoppers can be released so that the hens can feed them- 
selves on grain from 2 o'clock until dark. The dry-mash 
mixture is a 1 to 3.1 nutritive ratio; the scratch-grain 
mixture is a 1 to 7.7 nutritive ratio. If the Hens eat 
as much of one as they do of the other during the 
day they will have a ration the nutritive ratio of which 
is 1 to 5.4. 

Other rations recommended by experiment stations 
have been successfully used; the most prominent among 
them being what is known as the Maine ration. In this 
method, cracked corn is fed in the litter early in the 
morning. About noon a grain ration composed of equal 
parts of wheat and oats is fed at the rate of 2 qt. to each 
50 hens. The dry mash, which is kept constantly before 
the hens in hoppers, is composed of wheat bran, SO lb.; 
corn meal, 25 lb.; gluten meal, 25 lb.; meat scraps, 25 lb.; 
linseed meal, 12 lb.; low-grade flour, 25 lb. The meat 
scraps should always be mixed into the flour, when flour 
is used; this is done to coat the meat scraps and to 
separate them for feeding. A plentiful supply of green 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 73 

feed with grit, oyster shell, and water is a prominent 
part of this ration. 

The Missouri ration, as it is called, is highly recom- 
mended by the Missouri poultry experimental farm. It 
is composed of a grain mixture of 200 lb. of coarse 
cracked corn with 100 lb. of wheat. For dry mash, ground 
oats is continually before the hens in open hoppers. 
When the ground oats cannot be obtained, a mixture 
composed of SO lb. of wheat bran, 25 lb. of corn meal, and 
25 lb. of shorts or middlings is used. It is recommended 
that some of this dry-mash mixture be moistened with 
water or with sour milk or with buttermilk and fed to 
the hens during the afternoon of each day. A plentiful 
supply of green feed, shell, and grit has a prominent 
place in this ration. 

A ration recommended by the Ontario (Canada) Experi- 
ment Station is composed of whole wheat and whole 
corn. A liberal feeding of wheat is thrown into the 
litter morning and noon and a plentiful supply of whole 
corn fed at night. A dry mash is used with this grain 
mixture, the mash being composed of 100 lb. each of 
wheat bran, low-grade flour, and barley chop or meal. 
Some of this dry-mash mixture is fed in the middle of 
the afternoon as a wet mash. Boiled vegetables, waste 
bread or kitchen scraps, and lO-per-cent. beef scrap are 
included in the afternoon mash feed. A plentiful supply 
of green feed of some kind with grit, oyster shell, and 
charcoal are considered as a prominent part of this 
ration. 

Quantity of Food Required by One Hen in a Year. 
The figures for the quantity of food required by one hen 
in a year given in the accompanying table were derived 
from careful records of the food eaten by several hun- 
dred hens in a year. They show a total average of about 
4.86 oz., or a little less than 4 oz. of grain and meal and 
about %o oz. of other material per day for each hen. 
Another test of 4,800 hens shows a food consumption of 
3.96 oz. of grain per day for each, besides green food and 
grit. 



74 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

QUANTITY OF FOOD REQUIRED BY ONE HEN 
IN A YEAR 



Food 


Quantity 
Pounds 




90.0 


Oyster shell and bone 


64 


Grit 


2.0 


Charcoal 


2 4 




10.0 






Total 


110.8 







FEEDING OF FOWLS DURING MOLT 

Fowls that are molting should have good nourishing 
food in order properly to nourish their bodies while 
they are under the unusual strain of replenishing the 
plumage. Foods rich in fat and protein are best for the 
the purpose; hence, during molting, a mash that contains 
a large proportion of linseed-oil-cake meal and meat is 
particularly desirable. 

In the morning, molting fowls should have a moderate 
meal, composed of equal parts, by weight, of cracked 
corn and whole wheat. 

At noon they should have all they will eat of mash 
composed, by measure, of the following: 

Food Parts 

Wheat bran 4 

Wheat middlings 3 

Ground oats 3 

Meat scrap 4 

Corn meal 3 

Linseed-oil-cake meal 4 

Low-grade flour 1 

Alfalfa meal 2 

During the first week of the molting period this ration 
should contain only 1 part each of meat scrap and lin- 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 75 

seed-oil-cake meal; after the first week the quantities 
of these materials should be increased at the rate of 
yz part^per day every other day until the quantities given 
in the table have been reached. In case such a ration 
proves to be too laxative, the quantity of meat and lin- 
seed meal is lessened and y part of fine charcoal is 
added to the mixture. 

At night all the cracked corn and wheat they will eat 
is fed to the fowls. 

This method of feeding should be continued until the 
molt is complete, after which a laying ration is fed to 
the hens. 

Attempts to force molting are occasionally successful, 
but the advantages derived from the practice do not 
usually pay for the trouble caused. To force molting, 
fowls are confined in a small house for about 3 wk., 
are fed very sparingly, but all the fresh water they will 
drink is given to them. The quantity of food given 
should be gradually reduced until at the end of the first 
week they are receiving only about ^ of the usual food 
supply. During the second and third weeks not more 
than 1 oz. of grain, or J4 of a ration, should be fed per 
day to each fowl. This partial starvation will reduce 
flesh and fat and dry the oil from the feathers, causing 
them to drop very readily. At the end of the third week 
the fowls should be liberated and the food supply gradu- 
ally increased. By the end of the fourth week they 
should receive full rations. 



FEEDING OF CHICKS FOR BROILERS 

One of the most difficult problems in the rearing of 
poultry is the feeding of the cockerels for squab size 
and larger broilers. A good plan is to feed a bread 
made of meals, the meal mixture to contain 2 cups of 
■wheat middlings, 2 cups of corn meal, 2 tablespoonfuls 
of meat meal, 1 raw egg, 1 tablespoonful of baking pow- 
der, and sufficient water or milk to give a proper con- 



/ 



16 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

sistency to the baking. The mixture should be put into 
a pan the same as is corn bread and be baked until 
thoroughly done. This should be fed plentifully to the 
chicks for one week; thereafter, feed them all the wet 
mash they will eat. This mash should be composed of 
equal parts of ground oats, corn meal, and wheat mid- 
dlings, into which 1 pt. of beef scraps should be mixed 
for each 3 qt. of the meal mixture. The mash should 
be moistened with milk or water and the chicks should 
have all they will eat of it morning and noon. For night 
feeding they should have all the cracked corn they will 
eat. The main feature of importance is that the chicks 
shall have all they will eat three times a day without 
any being left to sour. If either sour milk or buttermilk 
can be used for moistening the mash, better results will 
be obtained than will come from feeding the mash 
moistened with water, yet water will do for the purpose 
when milk is lacking. 

The English method of feeding broilers differs from 
the methods used in this country. One broiler plant in 
England feeds almost exclusively ground oats, boiled 
rice, and boiled wheat. The broilers are very fond of 
the boiled rice and wheat, and it is thought that such 
feeding is most profitable. The ground oats are mois- 
tened with milk and fed early in the morning. The 
second feed is composed of either cooked rice or cooked 
wheat; the third feeding is ground oats mixed with milk, 
and the fourth, either the cooked rice or the wheat. If 
the rice is fed in the morning, cooked wheat is used for 
the fourth feeding. For the last feeding at night they 
have all of the cooked rice and cooked wheat they will 
eat. While this method of feeding is very exacting, it 
is said that the best ^mall size broilers sent to Londori 
market are fed in this way. 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 77 

SPECIAL FEEDING MIXTURES 

It not unusual to have in every flock some chicks that 
grow their feathers very slowly. This may come from 
lack of mineral elements in the system. Mineral matters 
compose about 5 per cent, of the body weight of birds, 
and for the most part they enter into the formation of 
bone and feathers. All feed rations should contain suffi- 
cient of these substances, which are largely lime, potash, 
and calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate from bone 
is most beneficial, although both bone and meat scraps 
are necessary for a well-formed ration. A dry-mash 
mixture containing these elements can be made of wheat 
bran, 20 lb.; ground oats, 10 lb.; gluten meal, 5 lb.; corn 
meal, 5 lb.; alfalfa meal, 5 lb.; meat scraps, 3 lb.; low- 
grade flour, 1 lb.; bone meal or granulated bone, 3 lb. 

Mix the meat scraps into the flour. This is for the 
purpose of coating them thoroughly so as to keep the 
particles separated for better mixing into the meals. 
The greater part of all the husks should be sifted out 
of the ground oats and the larger particles should be 
sifted out of the meat scraps. The alfalfa meal should 
be pure and ground fine. Meat scraps should be of excel- 
lent quality. 

This dry mash mixture is fine for growing chicks, as 
it hastens the growth of the feathers, bone, and muscle. 
It contains the elements that satisfy the growing chicks 
and to some extent prevents feather pulling and the 
eating of their toes. This same dry mash can be used 
for all fowls kept in confinement. It should be fed in 
hoppers. 

Bread-and-Milk Mixture.— -Moisten stale bread with 
milk, either sweet milk, sour milk, or buttermilk. The 
milk may be warmed a little, but not enough to boil or 
to set the curds. After the bread is thoroughly softened 
with the milk and mixed almost to a liquid, add ground 
oats and corn meal in equal parts, making the mixture 
into a crumbly mass. Add salt, not more than a stroked 
teaspoonful to 100 chickens. This mixture is excellent 



78 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

for feeding to growing cockerels or pullets that are not 
doing well. It is equally fine for feeding to pullets 
within a month of laying. When fed plentifully to 
young stock it will fatten them quickly for market. 
When feeding for quick growth for market, feed all they 
will eat of it twice a day, with a heavy feeding of 
cracked corn at night. When feeding for growth of pul- 
lets, feed all they will eat of it at noon. This mash 
should be fed as an extra meal; in all cases feed all 
they will eat up clean. A plentiful supply of green feed 
must be fed with bread-and-milk mixture. 

Cleansing Mixture.— Laying hens that are plentifully 
fed on concentrated feed should occasionally have a 
cleansing mixture of some kind fed in their ration. A 
mixture may be made of 8 oz. of Epsom salts and 8 oz. 
of flowers of sulphur mixed thoroughly; this should be 
added to 6 qt. of dry mash and all mixed thoroughly. 
Sufficient of this for one feeding should be moistened 
with milk or water and fed to the laying hens once 
every two or three weeks or after a spell of very hot 
or very wet weather. It will relieve the intestines and 
expel intestinal worms, if any are present. The mixture 
should not be fed oftener, nor should more be used, than 
is here recommended. 



FEEDING OF TURKEYS 

Poults should have nourishing food in small particles 
so that they will be able to digest it properly. No sour 
or fermented food, chopped green bone, raw meat, or 
large quantities of millet seed, cottage cheese, or wet or 
sloppy foods should ever be fed to poults. Poults require 
plenty of grit and fresh water. 

A ration of stale bread crumbs and a ration made up 
of equal parts of stale bread crumbs, finely chopped 
hard-boiled eggs, and dandelion leaves, fed alternately, 
is a good method of feeding poults. 

Turkeys on a range plentifully supplied with natura 
foods that they like will need much less feeding than 



H 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 79 



turkeys that are compelled to live on a range where the 
natural food supply is scanty. Turkeys should have 
plenty of corn, vi'heat, and some oats, the quantities and 
proportions varying with the character of the food on 
their range. 



I FEEDING OF GUINEA FOWLS 

j Like poults, young guinea fowls should be fed on 
finely divided foods, and water should be given to them 
in very shallow vessels to prevent the young birds from 
drowning in them. Grit 'and plenty of fresh water should 
be supplied. 

A ration suitable for young guinea fowls is composed, 
by measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Very fine oatmeal 2 

Finely cracked wheat 2 

Rape seed 2 

Canary seed 1 

Ant's eggs, or very small particles of 
cooked meat, or finely chopped hard- 
boiled eggs 1 

Guinea fowls for market can be fattened on milk 
curds, steamed hulled oats, and warm mash. If these 
feeds are not available, guinea fowls can be satisfac- 
torily fattened on a ration composed of equal parts of 
ground oats, barley meal, and table scraps. 



FEEDING OF PHEASANTS 

The first food of young pheasants should be composed, 
by measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Very small bread crumbs 1 

Canary seed 1 

Fine grit 1 

Very fine corn grits 1 



80 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

If the pheasants are 2 da. old, about 10% of cooked 
lean meat may be added. Stale bread softened in sweet 
milk and a custard of eggs and milk put together with 
enough stale bread crumbs to soak up the greater part 
of the moisture, are good foods for young pheasants. A 
certain quantity of meal worms may be fed to mature 
pheasants, although a ration composed by measure, as 
follows, is preferable: 

Food Parts 

Finely chopped hard-boiled eggs 1 

Crushed hemp seed 1 

Stale bread crumbs 1 

Oatmeal 1 

Finely chopped cooked lean meat J4 

Finely chopped green food should also 
be fed. 



FEEDING OF DUCKS 

During the fall, in addition to green food, ducks should 
have twice a day as much as they will eat of a mash 
consisting, by measure, of the following: 

Food Parts 

Corn meal 4 

Wheat bran 12 

Low-grade wheat flour 1 

Fine grit J4 

A small quantity of meat scrap may be added to this 
ration if desired. 

During the winter, ducks should have a liberal supply 
of chopped green feed. Twice a day they should have 
all they will eat of a mash feed composed, by measure, 
as follows: 

Food Parts 

Wheat bran 5 

Corn meal 6 

Low-grade wheat flour 1 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 81 

A small quantity of meat scrap may be added to this 
ration if desired. 

During the laying season ducks will eat about 1 pt. 
of food each per day. Their food should always consist 
of at least 2 or 3% of grit, ground oyster shells, or some 
similar material. 

A suitable feed for laying ducks, when they have an 
ample supply of green food, is a mash food composed, by 
measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Wheat bran 3 

Ground oats 3 

Corn meal 3 

Low-grade wheat flour 1 

Meat scrap 1 

Many rations are used for fattening broiler ducks for 
market. A good one to use for the 10 da. or 2 wk. pre- 
vious to killing is composed, by measure, as follows: 
Food Parts 

Com meal 10 

Wheat bran 4 

Wheat middlings 4 

Meat scrap 3 

Low-grade wheat flour 1 

Green feed 2 

Coarse sand 1 

No green stuff should be fed during the last week of 
fattening, but a plentiful supply of water must always 
be furnished. 

Ducklings intended for breeders are fed on a ration 
composed, by measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Wheat bran 10 

Wheat middlings 6 

Corn meal 3 

Low-grade wheat flour 1 

Meat scrap 1 

Sand 1 



82 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

This is mixed into a crumbly state by the addition 
of milk or water and fed three times daily. In some 
cases, instead of wheat bran 6 parts of bran and 4 parts 
of ground oats are substituted. 

Another ration for ducklings intended for breeders is 
composed, by measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Corn meal » 6 

Wheat bran 6 

Wheat middlings 6 

Meat scrap 1 

All meal fed to ducks as a mash feed must be mois- 
tened with either water or milk, and must be mixed 
dry enough so that the ducks can shovel it up with their 
bills. They cannot do this well if the mash is sticky. 

FEEDING OF YOUNG DUCKLINGS 

There are several methods of feeding young ducklings; 
one is to give either a mixture of rolled oats and bread 
crumbs in equal parts with a little fine grit mixed into 
it, all moistened either with water or milk, preferably 
milk. The meals should be moistened slightly so that 
they will scatter about and not stick together. The little 
ducklings can shovel up this kind of a mixture from a 
flat board. Beginning on the third day, add some bran 
and corn meal in about equal parts by measure with 
the bread crumbs and rolled oats. When the ducklings 
are a week old, feed them with a mixture of equal parts 
of wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground oats, and corn 
meal, with some green stuff and some beef scraps mixed 
into the meal. The green stuff should always be cut 
into very small pieces and be mixed into the meal, 
which should be moistened with water or milk. Never 
moisten the feed for ducklings so that it will stick 
together or be sloppy; have it only slightly moistened 
so that it will be easily shoveled up by the ducks. 

One rule that must be observed when feeding duck- 
lings is to have drinking water continually before them 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 83 

and yet not where they can run through it. It is a 
habit of ducklings to take a rnouthful or two of feed, 
then some water. They will run backwards and for- 
wards from the feed trough to the water, eating and 
drinking alternately until they have finished. If duck- 
lings are fed on dry grain or dry food of any kind with- 
out plenty of water they will frequently choke, stagger, 
fall over, and in some cases die. 

Another good plan, for feeding ducklings is to teach 
them to take from a trough cracked corn, whole wheat, 
and any other kind of grain without husks, these grains 
to be submerged in water. After being fed in this way 
for several weeks, they can be gradually taught to eat 
dry grain or even whole corn without injury, provided 
they have water to go to at will; but they cannot stand 
such feeding when very young. 

Dr. Prince T. Woods, of Massachusetts, recommends 
the following formula for feeding ducklings less than 
4 da. old: Mix 4 qt. of wheat bran, 1 qt. of corn meal, 
1 qt. of low-grade flour, 4 oz. of grit of small size; 
moisten some of this mixture with cold water and feed 
the ducklings four times a day all they will eat of it in 
a short period of time. After the ducklings are 4 da. 
old they may be fed from this same mixture of meals 
with 12 oz. of beef scraps of small size added to the 
mixture. When feeding beef scraps to young ducklings 
it is always a good plan to scald the beef scraps sepa- 
rately, stir them up, mix them into the meal ; but when 
feeding, add sufficient cold water to moisten the whole 
of it slightly, so that it is of a proper consistency for the 
ducks. After the ducklings are a week old, green stuff 
of some kind should be cut up very small and mixed in 
with the feed. After the ducklings are 3 wk. old, con- 
tinue to feed them from the same meal mixture, adding 
double the quantity of beef scrap and giving them more 
green feed. 



84 FEEDING OF FOWLS 

FEEDING OF GEESE 

A simple ration for goslings is composed, by measure, 
of the following: 

Food Parts 

Corn meal 1 

Wheat bran 1 

Ground oats 1 

Table scraps 1 

This should be slightly moistened with either water or 
milk. 

Geese are by nature grazing birds, and the greater 
part of their living consists of green food. Because of 
their lack of a crop, geese should be fed on ground corn 
in the form of a slightly warmed mash. During the 
winter, in addition to green food, the matured geese 
should have once a day all they will eat of a ration 
composed, by measure, as follows: 

Food Paris 

Corn meal 3 

Wheat bran 3 

Ground bats 3 

This should be moistened into a crumbly mass. 
During the winter this same ration with 4 parts of 
steamed clover added is suitable. 

The following rations are suitable for fattening geese 
for market: 

They should be fed liberally three times a day. The 
morning and noon feeds should consist, by measure, of 
the following: 

Food Parts 

Corn meal 6 

Ground oats 6 

Meat scrap 1 

This mixture should be slightly moistened and mixed 
until it assumes a crumbly state. During the last 10 
da. of feeding the quantity of meat in the ration should 
be doubled. 



FEEDING OF FOWLS 85 

In the evening the geese should be fed all they will 
eat of a ration composed, by measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Cracked corn boiled until soft 1 

Corn meal 1 

Wheat middlings 1 



FEEDING OF WILD WATER FOWLS 

Where wild water fowls have the freedom of a large 
enough pasture, they will graze the greater part of their 
living, but it is always advisable to keep near at hand 
covered hoppers where the fowls may help themselves at 
will. For mature ducks and geese, the hopper should be 
kept filled with a dry mixture composed, by measure, as 
follows: 

Food Parts 

Ground oats 1 

Cracked corn 1 

Wheat bran 1 



FEEDING OF PIGEONS 

The grains most suitable for feeding to pigeons are 
wheat, corn, buckwheat, barley, peas, vetch seed, hulled 
oats, millet, rice, hemp seed, and canary seed. No large 
quantity of buckwheat, barley, hulled oats, or Kafir corn, 
should be fed to pigeons, because these grains contain 
a large percentage of crude fiber. 

Pigeons that are not feeding their young may con- 
sume as little as 2 oz. of grain each, per day, but those 
feeding their young will require perhaps as much as 4 oz. 
per day. 

A suitable ration for pigeons is composed, by "measure, 
as follows: 

Food Parts 

Corn 2 

Wheat 1 

Peas 1 

7 



86 INCUBATION 

During the fall and when the pigeons are molting, 
a good ration for them is composed, by measure, as 
follows: 

Food Parts 

Corn 4 

Wheat 4 

Peas 4 

Millet 2 

Vetch seed 1 

Flaxseed 1 

Hemp seed J^ 

A ration for the hand feeding of pigeons, that is, for 
scattering on the floor of the house, is composed, by 
measure, as follows: 

Food Parts 

Canada peas 3 

Cracked corn , 1 

Wheat 1 

Kafir corn 1 



INCUBATION 

In poultry, the reproductive process is accomplished 
in two stages. The t.gg is first produced, developed, 
fertilized within the body of the hen, and laid. Then 
the egg is subjected to a certain temperature (100° F. 
or a little higher) for about 21 da., during which time 
the embryo develops and hatches out of the shell as a 
chick. The process of developing the embryo within 
the egg by means of heat is called incubation. When 
this is carried on by a hen, it is known as natural 
incubatiSn; when incubation is accomplished by means 
of a machine, oven, or other device, it is known as 
artificial incubation. Man has little control over the 
reproductive process in its first stage except so far as 
the selection of the breeders is concerned; in the second 
stage, however, if artificial incubation is practiced, he 



INCUBATION 87 

can, by his methods of conducting the process, greatly 
influence the development and future well-being of the 
chick. 

Fertilization of the Egg.— In order that eggs shall 
hatch, the hen that lays them must have been mated 
with the male. The actual fertilization of the egg 
probably takes place as the yolk enters the oviduct. 
In the process of fertilization the germ from the male 
comes in contact with the germ cell, or blastoderm, and 
causes it to develop, provided that it is exposed to the 
right temperature. Hatchable eggs are those that are 
fertilized and have vitality enough to insure the produc- 
tion of a living chick. 

Eggs are usually fertile up to and including those laid 
the ninth day after the hens are separated from the 
males, and fertilization is impossible after the sexes 
have been separated for 12 da. or more. Eggs may safely 
be counted as fertile after the males have been with 
the hens for 9 da. or more. 

The eggs of all kinds of fowls are more apt to be 
fertile during the spring and early summer than at any 
other time. Fertility begins to decline with the com- 
mencement of molting, and during the fall and winter 
the production of fertile eggs is at the minimum. The 
average production occurs in January or soon after. 



NATURAL INCUBATION 

The poultryman very naturally prefers the incubator 
to the hen for hatching chicks. This preference has 
brought incubators into general use and so few chicks 
are hatched by hens as to have made this process nearly 
a lost art. Yet those who give the most thought to 
poultry culture know that the best chicks grown are 
hatched and reared by the mother hen. Chicks hatched 
and reared artificially do better during the cold weather 
than chicks hatched and reared naturally. As soon as 
spring arrives, a brood of chicks with the mother hen 



88 INCUBATION 

will do much better than chicks hovered under the 
heated brooders. Although incubators are so generally 
used, there are some farms where a large number of 
chicks are hatched and brooded by hens. 

Where but few chicks are reared, and where there is 
no necessity for early hatching, it would be quite as 
well and less troublesome to hatch and rear chicks with 
broody hens. The chicks so hatched and reared will, if 
properly cared for, be more vigorous than chicks hatched 
artificially. 

The question is frequently asked, "How do fanciers 
hatch and rear their chicks?" One of the most ardent 
ianciers says that fanciers unquestionably produce their 
best specimens by natural incubation. He says also that 
artificial incubation has absorbed the attention of our 
investigators and others to such an extent that little is 
written or taught of the old-fashioned but trustworthy, 
natural method. In view of the fact that most flocks 
raised by amateurs are hatched by hens, some instruc- 
tion bearing upon this particular method is necessary. 

To hatch eggs successfully it is well to follow the 
following precepts: "Select a quiet hen; discard one 
that uses her voice constantly. Have the nest ready 
before removing her from the laying coop. Set the hen 
in such a manner that she may walk on the nest and 
not be obliged to jump up or down to reach the eggs, for 
such a procedure means broken eggs or crushed chicks. 
Before setting and between hatches, paint all the wood- 
v/ork with kerosene. This is particularly important in 
warm weather. Dust the hen thoroughly with insect or 
lice powder before placing her on the nest. Repeat this 
4 da. before hatching time." 

Such words of encouragement for natural brooding 
might well be considered by all those who rear but a 
few chicks, and even by those who rear several hundred 
of them. Since it is always well to hatch part of the 
chicks and rear them with mother hens, these directions 
should be valuable to all persons engaged in raising 
poultry. 



INCUBATION 



89 



Box Nest.— Nests for sitting hens can be made from 
boxes from 14 to 16 in. square. A box from 9 to 12 in. 
deep and from 15 to 18 in. wide and long has about the 
correct dimensions. Deep nests protect the eggs from 
the cold below. The entire box should be lined with 
hay, as shown in Fig. 1. The nest, shown in Fig. 2, 
should be sufficiently deep to incline the eggs slightly 
toward the middle and flat enough to avoid crowding or 
piling the eggs. Several nests like this can be placed 
on the floor of a room with each nest occupied by a 
sitting hen. When this is done, hens that are accus- 
tomed to being together should occupy the nests, other- 




FiG. 1 Fig. 2 

wise, they will fight. If hens are strangers, their nests 
must be enclosed to keep them from coming together 
and the hens should be carefully watched when they 
leave their nests. 

Hens for Sitting.— Broody hens that are quiet and 
tractable should be selected for hatching purposes. 
Those that are wild and unmanageable are not suitable 
for sitting or for mothers after the chicks are hatched. 
The use of hens with scaly legs should be avoided, as 
this ailment is liable to be transmitted to the chicks. 
Hens that are to be set in the same room should all come 
from the same flock. Before the hen is placed in posi- 
tion, the nest should be thoroughly dusted with insect 
powder and the body of the hen covered with it. The 
powder should be well worked in down to the skin and 



90 INCUBATION 

the work should be done with especial care about the 
vent, under the wings, and around the neck. This 
operation should be repeated on the seventh and four- 
teenth days of the incubation period. In this way only 
are vermin kept from the hens and the chicks saved 
from their ravages. Non-fertile, or clear, eggs should 
be placed under the hen for 2 or 3 days to test her. If 
she is faithful and attentive to these she may be trusted 
with selected eggs. If she pushes them under her body 
with her head, it is a sign that she will be a good sitter 
and a good mother. 

Care of Nest and Hen.— To dust the hen and nest with 
insect powder is fatal to body lice, and red mites may 
be kept away with kerosene oil or turpentine; 1 oz. of 
naphthalene flakes dissolved in 3 gills of kerosene oil 
makes an excellent application to keep the latter pest 
away from the nest boxes. If this solution is liberally 
used in cracks and crevices of nest boxes, there will be 
very little trouble from mites; and where mites are 
abundant this preparation should be freely used on all 
the woodwork of the nest every time a hatch is taken 
off. When the day of hatching arrives the nest is flat- 
tened out in order to make more room, for if the eggs 
are crowded too close together the chicks are liable to 
be smothered as they emerge from the shell. The hens 
and chicks should not be removed from the nest until 
the beginning of the second day after hatching, nor 
should the chicks be fed until the third day after the 
hatch begins. If the nest is to be used again, all the 
old nesting material should be removed and burned, and 
the nest box itself should be well cleaned before making 
another nest of new material. 

Number and Arrangement of Eggs.— A setting of eggs 
should consist of an odd number. Thirteen eggs are 
generally considered as a setting, and they are arranged 
in the nest as shown in Fig. 2. The eggs should be 
uniform in size, for if some are small and others large 
the body of the hen will not come close to the smaller 
ones and the temperature of the eggs will not be uni- 



INCUBATION 91 

form. Eggs of irregular size are unfit for incubation. 
Eggs of this kind seldom, if ever, produce perfect chicks. 
Eggs set under hens gain a smooth gloss from contact 
with the body of the hen. By this means, as the process of 
incubation advances, the pores of the eggshell are closed. 

Moving the Broody Hen. — Broody hens of quiet dis- 
positions can be moved anywhere and may be actually 
placed on the nests if they are properly handled. To 
move a sitting hen, place the left hand gently under 
her breast bone, and take the shanks in the right hand 
with one finger between them. Clasp her firmly but 
gently; raise her from the nest, holding her against the 
body with the head toward you and the tail away from 
you. Do not carry her by the shanks, head hanging 
down. Place the hen gently on the nest, in which 
should be a few test eggs; settle her quietly with one 
hand on her back, the other smoothing her head— just 
a little of this — then remove the hands and cover or 
close the hen in the nest. If she settles down at once 
on the nest and turns the eggs with the motion of her 
body and wings, moving has been successful; if she is 
restless, shut her in the nest ^nd do not disturb her until 
morning. It is always best to move broody hens at 
night. If the hen takes quietly to the nest and eggs, 
as she is apt to do during the night, let her remain 
undisturbed until an hour before sundown, then permit 
her to come from the nest for food and water. If she 
refuses to sit during the night and day, she had best 
be returned to the flock of hens. 

Care of Sitting Hens.— If the hen is quiet and willing 
to sit, dust her body with insect powder as already 
described and let her stay the second day on the nest, 
permitting her to feed before noon of the second day. 
If she returns to the nest herself, all is well; if she 
does not, place her on the nest again. After 2 da. of 
proper behavior on the part of the hen, dust the nest 
and the hen's body again with the insect powder, and 
place an odd number of eggs in the nest. Some hens 
can cover 13 eggs, others only 9 or 11. Do not crowd 



92 INCUBATION 

too many eggs into the nest, for the best returns come 
from too few rather than from too many eggs in the nest. 

Broody or sitting hens must be kept quiet and undis- 
turbed, except at feeding time, which should occur at 
the same hour each day. This statement refers to hens 
that are confined to their nests. Hens that come and 
go at will should have food and water close at hand, 
from which they may help themselves at any time. 
Corn and wheat with grit and shell are perhaps the best 
foods for sitting hens. Fresh water should also be 
provided each day. A dust bath is a necessity for 
health and cleanliness. If any eggs are broken in the 
nest, they should be removed without delay, and the 
nest should be cleaned. If the eggs in the nest become 
soiled, they should, if possible, be cleaned without wash- 
ing them. This cleaning may be done by scraping them 
with a dull knife or with the thumb nail; if washing is 
indispensable, the eggs must be immersed in water the 
temperature of which is 90° F., or a little less — not more; 
the dirty coating on the shell should be softened and 
removed with as little rubbing as possible. When the 
nest and eggs have been cleaned, the eggs should be 
replaced under the hen. Eggs that have been washed 
do not hatch as well as those that have not been so treated. 

Feeding the Sitting Hen. — Hens that are sitting must 
be regularly fed on good, solid grain. They should have 
at each feeding grain enough to last 24 hr. Whole corn 
that is dry and hard, wheat, and some shell and grit 
must be supplied. Hens that cannot come from the nest 
at will should be liberated or taken from the nest to 
feed. Their crops should be felt each day. If they are 
not sufficiently fed, they will lose fat and their temper- 
ature will decrease, so that the eggs will not be properly 
warmed. When the hens come and go from the nest at 
will, food grit, and water must be placed where they 
can help themselves and at the same time be out of the 
reach of other hens. Looseness of bowels at this time 
should be avoided, as such a condition weakens the hens 
and lowers the temperature of the body. In returning 



INCUBATION 93 

the hen to the nest she should be placed on the edge of 
the nest and be permitted to settle on the eggs as she 
will; she should never be forced or hurried. 

Period of Incubation. — Fresh-laid eggs hatch in fewer 
hours than eggs that are kept 2 wk. or longer before 
incubation begins. After eggs are 4 wk. old, their 
vitality will probably be insufficient to produce chicks 
that v/ill grow to maturity. In some instances, eggs 
more than 3 mo. old have produced chicks that grew to 
maturity. These eggs, however, were unusually strong 
in vitality and were cared for in the most careful man- 
ner prior to being placed under hens for hatching. 

Fresh-laid eggs, if placed for incubation within 24 or 
48 hr. of laying, will hatch in from 8 to 12 hr. less time 
than eggs that were older when placed for incubation. 
Eggs for hatching may be safely kept for 2 wk., pro- 
vided they are kept where the temperature is even and 
about 55° F. Such eggs should be moved about a little 
each day. The more vigorous the hens that lay the eggs, 
the stronger will be the vitality of the eggs. Such eggs 
will keep longer for hatching and will produce stronger 
chicks than eggs laid by less vigorous hens. The aver- 
age period of incubation of eggs of several kinds is as 
follows: 

Days 
Fowls of medium and large-sized breeds.. 21 

Bantams and other small breeds 19 to 20 

Ducks 28 

Muscovy duck 35 

Muscovy duck crossed with Pekin or 

other drake 32 

Geese 28 

Turkeys 27 to 29 

Guinea fowls 28 to 30 

Pheasants 24 to 25 

Peafowls 27 to 29 

Pigeons 17 

Swans 35 to 40 

Ostriches 40 to 42 



94 



INCUBATION 




INCUBATION 95 

The Best Sitter.— Cochin, Orpington, Plymouth Rock, 
Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte hens are the best 
sitters. The quiet hen that will sit contented on the nest 
until her work is finished and will then care for her 
chicks properly is the kind to be depended on both for 
raising utility fowls and fowls for exhibition. 

The most unsatisfactory hen for hatching is the nervous 
hen that fusses and fights all who move about her; that 
will spring quickly from the nest when any one ap- 
proaches her, thus breaking her eggs and disturbing 
those left in the nest. A good motherly hen that will 
rear two broods in one season is the kind to be de- 
pended on. 

Testing Fertility of Eggs. — After eggs have been incu- 
bated for some time, it is usually desirable that they 
be examined for fertility. This examination may be 
best made during the seventh day of incubation. The 
work of testing the eggs can be done in daylight. To 
do the work well, however, requires that it be done 
after dark or in a darkened room. An appliance called 
an egg tester is used for this purpose. 

Many kinds of egg testers are offered for sale. An 
excellent one is the kind that has a bull's-eye lens like 
those used for bicycle lamps. A tester of this kind is 
shown in operation in Fig. 3. The tester is placed over 
the flame of any kerosene oil lamp, in a room that is . 
dark. The eggs should be placed against the opening 
so that the light may shine through the egg; both live 
and dead germs may then be clearly seen. 

Development of the Embryo.— To one well trained in 
the testing of eggs, the f.rst material change will be 
visible in about 48 hr. after incubation begins. The head 
and the lines of the body can be seen by the trained 
observer. The stages of development of the embryo are 
shown in Fig. 4. To become expert in the testing of 
eggs, one should compare the successive steps in the 
development with the day on which it should occur as 
recorded in this chart, which includes all the phenomena 
from the first to the twenty-first day. 



INCUBATION 




Fig. 4 



INCUBATION 



97 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

During recent years there has been a large increase 
of market poultry, resulting from the practice of arti- 
ficial incubation. The incubator operator can control 
production by artificial means, but with hens a desire 
to hatch cannot be hastened. The artificial methods of 
hatching and rearing chicks bring alike to the farmer 
and to the small grower the choice of the day of pro- 
duction and of the number of chicks produced. 

The results obtained from artificial incubation depend 
primarily on the vitality of the eggs; but the handling 
of the incubator, surrounding influences, and the gen- 
eral efficiency of the incubator itself are other condi- 
tions of fundamental importance. The vitality of eggs 
depends on the constitutional 
vigor of the fowls that pro- 
duce them; superior vigor 
must come through several 
generations of strong and 
healthy fowls. It follows 
therefore that, in order to 
have embryo chicks of 
marked vitality, eggs must be 
used that come from strong, 
vigorous, well-bred fowls. 

The per cent, fertility is 
an expression that is fre- 
quently misleading. More 
than 90% of the eggs 
may be fertile and yet no 
living chicks may come from 
them, because the germ is 
so lacking in vitality that 

it dies before incubation is completed. The per cent, 
fertility is increased by proper feeding and the vigor 
of both male and female is also increased, but there is 
a pronounced difference between fertility and vitality. 
The former may exist to a marked degree even though 




White 



93 INCUBATION 

the vitality of the germs or the egg be lacking, but the 
latter obviously cannot be present without the former. 
Chicks that are not strong and of abundant vitality 
when hatched should never be raised for breeders, but 
such fowls may be used for market poultry. 

There is a marked difference between the production 
of fowls for exhibition or for beauty and the production 
of those fitted for egg yielding and for table meat. 
Where exhibition fowls are desired, the producing stock 
must be yarded to avoid the mixing of breeds or 
varieties. This is necessary only during the breeding 
season. At other times the old and young stock may 
have free range. Where egg producers and market poul- 
try are desired, it is best to give the breeding stock all 
possible liberty. It is best to keep only one variety, 
and the flock should have free range if possible. 

The records of artificial incubation are derived from 
experiments with different makes of incubators. 

The hatch from hens ranged as high as 83.3% and as 
low as 50%, and that of the incubator from 77.1% to 
32.5%. 

Selection of Eggs for Incubation.— Eggs for hatching 
in an incubator should all be of one kind, size, and 
color; for only when eggs of such character are incu- 
bated together can uniform hatching be secured. 

Eggs from Leghorns and Brahmas do not hatch well 
if both are together in the same incubator, for the eggs 
of the Leghorns usually hatch during the twentieth day, 
and the hatching of the Brahma eggs may be delayed 
to the end of the twenty-first day. If eggs from Leg- 
horns, Plymouth Rocks, W^yandottes, and Brahmas are 
all together in the one incubator the hatch is irregular. 
Eggs but 1 da. old hatch a day sooner than eggs that 
are 2 wk. old. Leghorn eggs placed in an incubator on 
the day they are laid may hatch in 480 hr. ; eggs of 
Asiatic fowls placed in the same incubator when 2 wk. 
old may hatch for 516 hr., a difference in time that makes 
poor results inevitable if the eggs of both breeds are 
incubated together. The eggs of ducks and of chickens 



INCUBATION 99 

cannot be successfully hatched together in the same 
incubator, nor do the eggs of any two or more kinds 
of fowls hatch well if placed together in the same incu- 
bator or under the same hen. 

If the eggs are of uniform size, the temperatures of 
all are equal or nearly so; if large and small eggs are 
in the same machine the temperature may not be the 
same in all. 

Eggs with white shells hatch in fewer hours than do 
the dark-shelled eggs, for white shells are thinner and 
transmit heat more freely to the germ within. Under 
the same conditions, eggs with white shells will have 
larger air cells than those with heavier shells. 

Only smooth and well-formed eggs should be used; 
eggs with uneven surfaces, bad form, rough shells, or 
mixed colors should be discarded, as well as eggs that 
are abnormally large or small. 

Care of Eggs for Hatching.— The best hatch is obtained 
from eggs placed in the incubator the same day on which 
they are laid. Eggs keep in prime condition for hatch- 
ing up to the tenth day; if 2 wk. old they are safe for 
incubation; but if older than this they seldom hatch 
well, although some eggs that have been kept a month 
will hatch. Eggs keep the best in a uniform tempera- 
ture of about 55° F. in an atmosphere free from oil and 
other bad odors. The vitality of eggs that are exposed 
for any length of time to a temperature below 40° F. is 
impaired. 

Eggs for hatching are shifted at least every other day 
so that the yolks will not settle to one side, stick to the 
shell, and thus destroy the germ. Preferably, the eggs 
should be stored small end down, either in a regular 
packing crate or any suitable receptacle. 

Eggs for hatching are injured if they are washed; 
washing removes the natural glaze from the shell, and 
such eggs do not hatch well. Though it is not advisable 
to hatch dirty eggs, such eggs hatch better in soiled con- 
dition than they would if washed. 



100 



INCUBATION 



INCUBATORS 

An incubator is an apparatus by means of which eggs 
may be artificially kept at the proper temperature for 
hatching. Many different styles and sizes of incubators 
are now in use, some of them being adapted for all sizes 
of eggs from those of the bantam to those of an ostrich. 
Incubators range in size from those the capacity of 
which is limited to a few dozen eggs to those that are 




Fig. 5 



capable of incubating many thousand eggs. The ma- 
chines most commonly used have capacities that range 
from 5 to 30 doz. hen's eggs or a smaller number of any 
eggs that are larger than hen's eggs. 

Though many different types of incubators are made, 
with but few exceptions in outward appearance they 
resemble the one shown in Fig. 5. 

The essential parts of an incubator consist of a heating 
apparatus that is controlled by a regulator, and an egg 



INCUBATION 101 

chamber that can be held at the required temperature. 
Incubators are also supplied with thermometers and 
means of ventilation. 

In the various incubators heat is brought into contact 
with the eggs either by diffusion or radiation. In 
diffusion incubators, hot air is evenly distributed through- 
out the egg chamber. In radiation incubators, the heat is 
radiated from pipes or radiators that are heated either 
by hot air or by hot water. A large part of the incuba- 
tors in use are of the diffusion type, in which the air is 
heated by an oil lamp. In these machines the heated 
air passes directly into the egg chamber and throughout 
the interior of the machine. The eggs in the tray are 
thus surrounded with air at the required temperature. 
Incubators in which the heat is both radiated and 
diffused are also used. The more evenly the egg chamber 
is warmed the greater will be the success in hatching. 

The most satisfactory source of heat for incubators of 
all kinds is that obtained from oil lamps. Some incuba- 
tors are heated by circulating hot water. Some incu- 
bators require particular care and attention, and their 
efficiency depends on the proper circulation of the water, 
the distribution of the pipes, and the lasting qualities 
of the entire heating system. Illuminating gas, elec- 
tricity, and alcohol lamps are also used to some extent 
as sources of heat for incubators. 

Incubator manufacturers prefer thermometers specially 
made to suit each kind of machine. There is usually 
a reason for such preference, and the thermometer 
recommended by the manufacturers should be favored. 
If this instrument cannot be obtained, the best that is 
made must be selected. Incubator thermometers are 
scaled from 90° F. to 110° F., and are marked low at 
100° F. and high at 105° F., and the scale is crossed at. 
103° F. by an arrow or a heavy line. It is thus easy to 
make an accurate reading between the low and the high 
marks, provided the thermometer is correctly graduated. 

Before being used, incubator thermometers are tested 
in the following manner: An instrument known to be 



102 INCUBATION 

correct is stirred about in warm water until the degree 
of heat is 105° F. or a little higher. Other thermometers 
are then held in the same hand with the one known to 
be correct and all are stirred about in the water so that 
the reading o£ all may be taken under like conditions. 
Any instruments that fail to mark the temperature cor- 
rectly are rejected. It is best to test all thermometers 
in use at least once a season. 

The printed directions that come with each incubator, 
giving instructions for its operation, also tell where 
the thermometer is to be placed in the machine, and to 
secure the best results such directions should be fol- 
lowed to the letter. The thermometer is usually placed 
in or near the center of the egg tray. 

Temperature and Moisture.— An expert who has had 
more practical experience with the use of incubators 
than any other man has said: "Briefly stated, all that 
is required to hatch eggs artificially is a temperature 
of 100.5° F. at the center of the eggs,' which is 101° F. to 
103° F. by contact; at the same time, the eggs should 
be immersed in still air containing moisture of a relative 
humidity of from 45 to 70 per cent., this moisture to be 
changed sufliciently often to carry off the waste gases 
eliminated by the eggs. Any excess of ventilation be- 
yond this is deleterious." 

Professor Lamson, of the Connecticut State Agricul- 
tural College, has said that the chief factors in the arti- 
ficial incubation of good fertile eggs are "temperature, 
turning the eggs, moisture, and ventilation." The mean- 
ing of this would be that when eggs are hatched in the 
incubator, the temperature as usually taken by a ther- 
mometer should range from 101° F. to 103° F. and that 
when a thermometer is used that would indicate the 
temperature at the center of the egg the temperature of 
that position should be 100.5° F. The thermometer used 
for taking this particular test is known as the "In-Ova 
Thermometer." This is a thermometer the bulb of which 
is inside a celluloid e^g, the bulb resting in the center 
of the egg. When such a thermometer is used it indi- 



INCUBATION 103 

cates the temperature at the center of the egg, which 
should be 100.5° F. When the ordinary or regular type 
of thermometer is used, and when the bulb re=ts at or 
near the upper outside of the &gg, the temperature should 
not go below 101° F. and not much above 103° F. 

The statement made that the atmosphere should be 
changed sufficiently often to carry off the waste gases 
refers to proper ventilation. In writing of this, Pro- 
fessor Lamson says that by the use of specially con- 
structed apparatus it was shown that the ventilation 
required in the incubator to secure the best results in 
living chicks consisted in a change of 5 cu. ft. per hr. 
for each SO eggs. Where the change of air exceeded 
10 cu. ft. per hr. for each 50 eggs, the hatch began to 
run down, and when the air change was reduced to J4 cu. 
ft. per hr., only a very small percentage of chicks were 
hatched. 

As a result of many experiments, it has been shown 
that hen-hatched chicks weigh 1.258 oz. ; that incubator- 
hatched chicks with maximum moisture weigh 1.184 oz. ; 
that chicks hatched in incubators with a medium amount 
of moisture weigh 1.159 oz. ; and that chicks hatched in 
non-moisture machines weigh 1.072 oz. It has also been 
shown that the minimum moisture in the incubator might 
be 45%, while the maximum might be 70%. 

The weight of these chicks seems to indicate that to 
have the greatest possible vigor in chicks a greater quan- 
tity of moisture is required during- incubation than is 
present in the average incubator. For these reasons, 
considerable effort has been made to find some means of 
introducing moisture into machines during the period of 
incubation. Among the devices used are pans of water 
or pans of sand moistened with water and placed under 
the egg tray. Another way is by sprinkling the eggs 
with water morning and evening during incubation as 
clothes are sprinkled with the hand or by means of 
sprays such as are used by druggists or florists. 

An excellent method of applying moisture is to have 
pads made of burlap or felt, and cut to fit under the 



104 INCUBATION 

egg tray. These pads are saturated with hot water, 
wrung out almost dry, and then placed under the egg 
tray. Pieces of outing cloth or cotton flannel of suffi- 
cient size to cover the top of all eggs may be soaked 
in hot water, wrung out until they are almost dry, 
placed on top of the eggs, and left there. This is an 
excellent method of providing moisture for the eggs 
from the twelfth to the eighteenth day. 

The rules sent out with each incubator should always 
be strictly followed; yet it must be remembered that in 
some latitudes the air is much drier than in others. 
Sometimes, therefore, it is necessary to supply moisture, 
a need indicated by the size of the air cell. If this cell 
is larger than normal, moisture must be supplied and the 
rate of air change must be reduced. The water pan, sand 
tray, or the moistened felt, or the wet outing flannel 
should be used when it is necessary to supply moisture. 

Turning and Cooling.— It is necessary that the eggs in 
the incubator tray should be turned and cooled at reg- 
ular intervals. Turning every 12 hr. is practiced by 
some; turning once in 24 hr. when the eggs are cooled 
is practiced by others. Some experts insist that eggs 
will hatch better if turned and cooled more frequently. 
They advise that the trays of eggs be taken from the 
machine and cooled for a short time, three or four times 
a day, and each time the eggs are turned they will be 
cooled slightly. This practice has not yet been tested 
sufficiently to warrant its acceptance; however, it might 
be experimented with to advantage. 

Some operators of considerable experience insist that 
the cooling of eggs is useless. The common practice is 
to cool and turn the eggs twice a day, never turning 
them over entirely, but just moving them slightly in 
the e.gg tray so that each egg will be moved a little. 
When the weather is cool, the eggs need not be kept 
out of the egg chamber longer than 4 or 5 min. ; when 
the weather -s warm and the incubator room is at a 
temperature of 70° F. or more, the eggs should be cooled 
fully 30 min. 



INCUBATION 105 

Chicks Dead in the Shell.— The prevailing question as 
to artificial incubation is, "Why do chicks -die in the 
shell?" In answer to this, one of the most expert in 
incubating says: "The best of incubators add nothing 
to the vitality of the developed embryo. When the 
vitality of the embryo is impaired or the eggs are old, 
the hen will not hatch a higher percentage than any 
incubator ever constructed, yet to find dead chicks in 
the shell is a very common experience, even when the 
most faithful hens are employed." This would indicate 
that we must look beyond the hatching machine for the 
cause of the dead chicks in the shell. The causes for 
chicks dying in the shell are several. The most prev- 
alent of all is inexperience in the handling of the 
incubator; another is lack of vitality in the eggs. This, 
bemg due to low vitality in the hen that laid the eggs, 
can be remedied only through several years of careful 
breeding of the parent stock for greater vigor. 

Another writer has said that a successful hatch begins 
with the fowls that lay the eggs. Immature pullets will 
not furnish eggs desirable for incubation. The best eggs 
for this purpose will be laid by hens in their second year 
that have great vigor and have been fed and cared for 
with the object of procuring eggs for hatching. There 
will be no dead chicks in the shell when the hens laying 
the eggs are full of vitality and when the person that 
handles the incubator has had sufficient experience to 
act quickly and properly as each emergency comes. 

Rules for Hatching.^The manufacturers of incubators 
assume that the treatment of eggs during incubation is 
an exact science, and that the directions that they have 
formulated are faultless. One of the largest manufac- 
turers of incubators has printed a bulletin on the han- 
dling of incubators to get the best results. In this 
bulletin he says that the eggs should be turned every 
12 hr. beginning on the third day and ending on the 
night of the eighteenth day. It is better, however, to 
keep on changing the position of the trays as usual until 
the eggs begin to pip. Never turn the eggs with oily 



106 INCUBATION 

hands or with hands that have any substance on them 
which might adhere to the shells. 

Test the eggs on the sixth and the seventeenth days, 
but do not turn or cool them while testing them. Cool- 
ing and ventilating should be done according to the 
instructions given in the book of directions that accom- 
panies each machine. Cooling helps to soften eggs. 

Be sure that the thermometer is accurate. If your 
machine is supplied with a suspended thermometer, see 
that the bulb is just 2 in. above the wire of the egg 
tray. Do not allow the thermometer to go above 103° F., 
except when the chicks are coming out lively, at which 
time it may go as high as 105° F. without injury. 

Do not open the door of the incubator after the eggs 
begin to pip. Close the ventilator when the chicks begin 
to come out and keep it closed until the hatch is com- 
pleted, unless the hatch is very large and the chicks 
are crowded, in which case the ventilators may be 
opened when the hatch is two-thirds off. Open the venti- 
lator and wedge the door slightly ajar after the hatch 
is over and the trays containing the shells have been 
removed. Allow the chicks to remain in the incubator 
for from 24 to Z6 hr. Do not feed or water the chicks 
while they are in the incubator. 

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SUCCESS IN 
INCUBATION 

The factor of prime importance in incubation is the 
vitality of the eggs, and this depends on the vitality of 
the fowls that produce them. 

Eggs for hatching should all be of one kind, size, and 
color. 

Only smooth and well-formed eggs should be used for 
hatching. Eggs of bad form or with rough shells should 
be discarded. 

The best eggs for hatching are those that are placed 
in an incubator on the day they are laid; eggs are in 
good condition for hatching up to 10 da. after they are 
laid; after they are 2 wk. old they are unreliable. 



INCUBATION 107 

Clean eggs are the best, but eggs should not be washed. 
Washed eggs do not hatch well. 

The incubator must be set up perfectly level and kept 
so for the best results. 

The directions given by the manufacturers for the 
operation of their machines must be closely followed. 

The thermometers recommended by the manufacturers 
of the incubators should be used, and they should be 
placed in the machine exactly where directed. 

Incubator eggs should not be handled with hands soiled 
by dirt or oil. Oil will kill the germ within the egg. 

Avoid jars of the incubator while hatching. This 
ruptures the Qgg and destroys the embryo. 

The incubator room should be kept free of drafts and 
bad odors of all kinds. 

Keep the flues of the incubator clean and free from 
soot. A coating of soot prevents the proper amount of 
heat from reaching the egg chamber. 

Keep the lamps clean and free from oil. Oil odors 
affect the eggs, and may even destroy the embryos. 

When the eggs are first placed in the incubator, they 
should be warmed gradually. If they are heated too 
fast the germs will be destroyed. 

Do not neglect to turn and air the eggs in an in- 
cubator. 

When the eggs are takeft out of an incubator to air, 
the door should be closed so that the Qgg chamber will 
not cool off. The eggs should not be kept out of the 
-chamber until they become chilled. This kills the 
embryos. 

Be sure to have the brooders prepared for the accom- 
modation of the chicks when they are ready to be taken 
from the incubator. 

When the incubator is not in use, keep It In a place 
where it will not become infested with vermin. When it 
is again put in use, it should be examined, thoroughly 
cleaned, and run for several days before the eggs are 
placed in it. 



108 



BROODING OF CHICKS 



BROODING OF CHICKS 



NATURAL BROODING 

The brood coop that will house three or four hens and 
their broods is quite convenient for natural brooding. 




Fig. 1 

A coop for two hens and their chicks is shown in Fig. 1. 
Another coop well suited for wet, cold, or stormy weather 
is shown in Fig. 2. After the chicks are well dried off. 




Fig. 2 



BROODING OF CHICKS 109 

and have been in the nest with the mother hen for at 
least 12 hr., the hen and the brood, or two or more hens 
and their broods can be removed to the brood coops. 
Three or four hens that are remarkably quiet will brood 
their chicks in one large open coop. If they are quarrel- 
some, ~they should be placed with their broods in sepa- 
rate coops. 

The chief factors of caring for the mother hen and her 
chicks are cleanliness inside of and about the coop. 
The coops should be placed where the chicks can run 
out on the ground, and where they can have a dry spot 
under foot when the ground is damp. They should 
always be sheltered from wet and rain until they are 
2 or 3 wk. old. 



ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

Chicks that are hatched from eggs put in the incubator 
on Monday evening do not need to be removed until 
Wednesday morning of the third week thereafter. This 
leaves the chicks in the incubator two nights and one day 
after they should be hatched. If from any cause the 
hatch is completed 12 or more hours ahead of time, the 
chicks may be removed an equal number of hours earlier. 
Chicks that are hatched on Monday need not be fed 
until Wednesday; they may, however, if removed from 
the incubator, be fed 12 or 15 hr. earlier than this. 
When the chicks are removed from the incubator to the 
hover or brooder, they should be protected from the cool 
or cold air by being covered with woolen cloths that 
have been warmed for the purpose. 

Chicks in the Brooder.— From 50 to 100 chicks may be 
placed under each hover, according to the kind of hover 
or brooder used. The sizes of the brooders vary from 
a 50-chick size to a hover that will care for 500 or more. 
The most satisfactory results will be obtained through 
the use of hovers that will care for from 50 to 100 chicks. 
Considerable experience and natural ability are neces- 
sary to succeed with brooders and hovers of larger size. 



110 BROODING OF CHICKS 

Management of Hover.— Each separate kind of brooding 
appliance must be cared for according to its needs. The 
average heat required beneath the hover is from 80° F. 
to 95° F. These differences in temperature are necessary, 
not because the floor of the nursery needs to be any 
warmer or any cooler in one kind than in another, but 
because the placing of the thermometer is not alike in 
all of them. Each manufacturer recommends a heat 
basis suited to the placing of the thermometer in that 
brooding system. The chicks on the floor should be in a 
temperature ranging from 85° F. to 92° F. When the 
chicks are first placed in the hover, the temperature 
should be about 92° F. ; the presence of the chicks 
beneath the hover will raise the temperature to at least 
95° F. After the chicks have been for 3 or 4 da. under 
the hover, the temperature can be gradually reduced. 
In winter it may be dropped to 90° F. and kept there 
until the chicks are fully 2 wk. old or more, at which 
time 1° or 2° less will answer. 

Always have sufficient heat under the nursery to 
satisfy the chicks and keep them contented. The one 
sure evidence of contentment of the chicks under the 
hover is the gentle peep of satisfaction which they give 
when properly brooded. Whenever there is not sufficient 
heat they will sound a cry of alarm or distress which 
every poultryman should learn. This call should be 
answered immediately and the cause of the cry dis- 
covered and remedied at once. 

Some authorities say that the temperature should regis- 
ter 95° F., running up fully to 100° F. when the chicks 
are placed in the brooder, and that this temperature 
should be maintained for the first week, after which it 
may be gradually reduced. This temperature may 
answer very well when the weather is cold, but in warm 
weather it is too high. The temperature should be kept 
as low as practicable, depending on the time of year 
and the age of the chicks. One safe rule is that the 
chicks should always have heat enough to obviate the 
danger of becoming chilled. 



BROODING OF CHICKS 



111 



No matter where the hover may be placed, whether in 
a coop made for the purpose, or in a box, a small house, 
or an outbuildihg, the floor should be covered with dry- 
sand over which should be scattered a coating of 2 or 
3 in. of cut straw, hay, alfalfa, or chaff of some kind. 
There should be sufficient of this on the floor to protect 
the chicks from the cold during severe weather, and 
enough of it so that the curtain of the hover will rest 




Fig. 3 



on it. Cleanliness, care, and proper feeding are always 
necessary for success in the growing of chicks. 

A brooding coop well suited for one or two hovers is 
shown in Fig. 3. This coop was made from two piano 
boxes placed together, the roof being covered with ordi- 
nary roofing paper. There are two doors in front; one 
is a frame door covered with wire cloth, the other a 
glass door, which is kept open when the w^eather is 
warm and the sun shines bright; but on very cold days 
and at night it should be closed. A brood coop of this 
kind can be safely used during the winter months. It 



112 BROODING OF CHICKS 

is not unusual to have one or two hovers each for fifty 
or a hundred chicks running inside of such a coop when 
the thermometer is nearly zero. 



POINTS IN SUCCESSFUL BROODING 

Brood coops should be perfectly sanitary and free from 
vermin, and should be painted with liquid insecticide 
at least a week before they are occupied. They should 
also be sprayed with insecticide every 2 wk. while in 
use, and the floors must be cleaned frequently. 

Brood coops should be ready a day in advance of the 
time when the chicks are to be placed in them, and the 
temperature should be about 90°. This temperature 
should be maintained for 7 da., after which it should 
be gradually reduced to 80°. 

If newly hatched chicks become chilled they will be 
seriously injured, and if they are overheated they will 
lose vitality. The proper heat must be maintained with 
regularity. 

The directions given by the manufacturers for the 
operation of brooders should be strictly followed, and 
the particular kind of thermometer recommended should 
be used. Temperature readings are taken at different 
heights, according to the construction of the brooder, 
and if the thermometers used are too long or too short 
the temperature readings will be misleading. 

Overcrowding in brooders should be avoided. When 
a brooder is overcrowded the air becomes impure, and 
this will result in a loss of vitality. 

As soon as chicks are able they should be allowed to 
run in the open, but they should be protected from 
predatory animals by covered runways. 

During inclement weather, chicks should be induced to 
take exercise by scattering small grains in the litter. 

After each meal, unconsumed food should be removed 
from the floor of the brooder. If it is left to be trampled 
over and becomes sour, it will cause bowel troubles. 



BROODING OF CHICKS 113 

Chicks that contract ailments of any kind should be 
isolated immediately. 

A critical stage in the life of chicks is when they are 
feathering, and at this time they should be supplied 
with an abundance of nitrogenous foods. 



MAMMOTH INCUBATORS AND 
BROODERS 

The Mammoth system of incubating and brooding has 
been so well developed that it can now be used with 
perfect safety. Incubators are built in sections and have 
a capacity of from three thousand to many thousand 
eggs. It is not unusual to see one Mammoth machine 
containing 15,000 eggs in operation. These incubators 
are heated by self-regulating coal-burning furnaces, the 
heat from which is distributed by means of hot water 
that passes through a system of pipes so adjusted as to 
keep a continuous flow, or circulation, from the furnace, 
through the pipes, and back to the furnace again. The 
heat in the egg chamber is regulated through the raising 
and lowering of the egg trays and by an automatic or 
thermostatic regulator. In writing of this system, one 
familiar with it says that the simplicity, economy, 
and safety of this type of heater is now universally 
recognized. 

A system of hot-water heating is used with the Mam- 
moth brooder. This system can be used with either a 
single- or a double-row brooding house. The system for 
heating is much the same as has always been used in 
hot-water brooding systems. The one great difference 
is that by using the self-regulating coal-burning furnace 
better service can be obtained at less cost than when 
boilers are used. Complete information regarding this 
system of incubating and brooding can best be obtained 
from those who manufacture the apparatus. 



114 EGGS 



EGGS 

Food Value of Eggs.— Eggs are a cheap food. They are 
less costly than most meats. One dozen eggs will better 
serve a family of six than V/2 lb. of meat. The average 
value of these is about equal. 

Composition of Eggs.— About 11% of hens' eggs consist 
of shell, 32% of yolk, and 57% of white. The white and 
yolk are made up of 72% of water. The table shown on 
pages 116 and 117, adapted from a bulletin of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, gives the composition 
and fuel value of eggs of the common domestic poultry, 
and, for purpose of comparison, the composition and fuel 
value of some of the more common foods other than these. 

Uses of Eggs. — In addition to their use as food, eggs 
are used to a limited extent for other purposes. The 
white of an egg is a remedy for burns, and if taken in 
time it is an effective antidote for poisoning by corrosive 
sublimate. Food or bones lodged in the throat can some- 
times be dislodged by swallowing a raw egg. The oil 
extracted from the yolk has healing properties, and the 
inner lining or membrane of the shell can be used as an 
adhesive plaster. Eggshells, on account of the purity 
of the carbonate lime of which they are largely com- 
posed, are used in compounding medicine and for several 
other purposes. 

There is a limited demand for rotten eggs for the 
finishing of some kinds of leather. They may be used 
as fertilizer, and in many instances they are used in 
the manufacture of calico. The supply, however, is 
much greater than the demand, and such eggs bring but 
a few cents a dozen. Often the price paid for them 
is not sufficient to cover the cost of transportation, which 
in most cases is paid by the shipper. 

Color of Eggshells. — Fowls of European origin lay 
white-shelled eggs; those of Asiatic origin lay dark- 
shelled eggs, as a rule. The eggs of different varieties 



EGGS 115 

of the same breed may differ slightly in color. For 
example, the eggs of dark-plumaged fowls have darker- 
colored shells than those of the lighter-plumaged fowls. 

A cross between two breeds, one of which lays brown- 
shelled eggs and the other white-shelled eggs, results in 
fowls that lay eggs of a color intermediate between the 
brown and the white. There is also considerable vari- 
ation in the color of eggs from different hens of the 
same variety. The color of the shell is more pronounced 
in the eggs first laid than in those laid later in the 
season. All fowls having the least amount of Asiatic 
blood show this influence in the tinted shells. The more 
of Asiatic blood a fowl has in its veins the darker will 
be the color of the eggshell. The eggs with the darkest 
color of shell are laid by the Langshans. 

The New York market pays the highest prices for 
white-shelled eggs, and the Boston market pays the high- 
est prices for brown-shelled eggs. In other markets the 
matter of color of shell is one of small importance. 

The color of shell produced by the most popular egg- 
producing breeds is given in the following list: 

Brown Shells White Shells 

Brahmas Anconas 

Cochins Adalusians 

Dorkings Crevecoeurs 

Dominiques Campines 

Faverolles Games (some have a tint) 

Indian Games Hamburgs 

Javas Houdans 

Langshans Leghorns 

Orpingtons La Fleche 

Plymouth Rocks Minorcas 

Rhode Island Reds Polish 

Wyandottes Redcaps 
Spanish 

Weight of Eggs.— Marketable eggs should weigh not 
less than 2 oz. each. At this weight, a crate of 30 doz. 

eggs will weigh 45 lb., exclusive of the crate, and 
such eggs will bring much better prices in the market 
than eggs of smaller size. Eggs much larger than 2 oz. 



116 



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118 EGGS 

are not profitable to sell, because they bring very little, 
if any, higher price in the general market, and hens do 
not lay so many. For a special market, however, it is 
sometimes possible to get a premium on eggs that 
average about 2^ oz. 

The weight o£ eggs depend to a large extent on the 
breed of fowls that lay them and also on the peculi- 
arities of individual fowls. The following, however, 
gives the average weight of various eggs: 

Eggs Ounces 

8 hen's eggs, average 16 

11 guinea eggs 16 

1 duck egg 3 

1 turkey egg 4 

1 goose egg 6 to 7 

Washing of Eggs.— Eggs that are so badly soiled as 
to need washing to fit them for market may be cleaned 
with a solution made up of 1 oz. of ammonia to 2 qt. of 
■water. Soiled eggs may also be washed in warm water 
and rubbed dry with a piece of cotton cloth or flannel. 
Deep stains may be removed by rubbing with dry, coarse 
salt. When cleaned in this way they should be rinsed 
in lukewarm water. Stained eggs are sometimes cleaned 
in lukewarm water that contain a small quantity of soap. 

After soiled eggs have been cleaned their appearance 
is improved by rubbing them with a cloth that has been 
moistened with a solution made up of 4 oz. of salt to 
1 pt. of vinegar; this treatment, however, is not neces- 
sary for eggs that have been washed in a solution con- 
taining ammonia. 

Percentage of Loss of Total Egg Crop.— According to 
the United States Department of Agriculture, about 17% 
■of the total egg crop of the country is lost, because of 
improper handling, or because of unsanitary conditions 
where the eggs are laid. The following table shows the 
percentage of loss of the total egg crop due to various 
causes: 



EGGS 119 

PERCENTAGE LOSS OF TOTAL EGG CROP 



Class 



Per Cent. 



Dirty eggs 

Broken eggs 

Chick development 

Shrunken or held eggs 

Rotten eggs 

Moldy and bad-flavored eggs 

Total 



17 



Relation of Weight of Eggs to Egg Production.— As a 

general rule, the larger the number of eggs laid by a 



RELATION OF WEIGHT OF EGGS TO EGG 
PRODUCTION 



Variety 


Number 

of 

Hens 


Number 


Weight 

per 
Dozen 
Ounces 


Average 

Number 

of 

Eggs 


Andalusian 

Single-Comb Black Mi- 
norca * 


72 

156 
108 
984 

42 
954 
234 

66 
834 
180 

90 
108 

66 
30 

72 


11.883 

23,910 
17,766 

173,939 
5,883 

162,623 
35,199 
10,479 

139,694 
32,593 
14,066 
16,902 

11,578 
5.554 

13.155 


26.85 

26.72 
26.03 
26.00 
25.94 
25.61 
25.25 
24.71 
24.50 
24.47 
24.45 
24.38 

24.31 
24.19 

22.74 


162.26 

146 85 




164 50 


White Leghorn 


176.75 
140 00 


Black Orpington 

BufT Orpington 

Buff Wyandotte 

Silver Wyandotte 

Brown Leghorn 

White Wyandotte 

Golden Wyandotte .... 
Rose-Comb White Leg- 


170.45 
150.42 
157.85 
167.49 
181.08 
156.25 
156.50 

173 90 


Black Hamburg 

Rose-Comb Brown Leg- 


185.00 
182.70 




Total, all varieties 


4,362 


732,082 


25.23 


167.50 



120 EGGS 

fowl, the lighter in weight the eggs will average. This 
is shown in the table on page 119, which is a summary 
of the egg record of 4,362 hens of fifteen different 
varieties that laid a total of 732,082 eggs, the records of 
the different lots of fowls being taken over a period of 
5 yr. In the table, the fowls are arranged with those 
laying the heaviest eggs per doz. at the top and those 
laying the lighter eggs coming in their proper order. 
The Black Hamburgs and the Rose-Comb Brown Leg- 
horns that produced the two highest average egg records 
produced the lightest-weight eggs, and though the results 
obtained are not all exactly in accordance with this 
statement, a careful inspection of the table will show 
that on an average hens with high egg records produced 
light-weight eggs, and that the hens with the lowest egg 
records produced somewhat heavier eggs. Since little 
attention is paid in the market to the weight of eggs, it 
is obvious that the best egg producers are the most 
profitable. 

Relation of Egg Production to Season.— In spite of the 
many assertions that hens lay more prolifically at one 
time of the year than at another, an inspection of the 
egg records of a large number of fowls fails to show 
any uniformity in regard to this point, but rather tends 
to indicate that egg production is more a matter of 
individuality than of season. The egg records given in 
the table on page 122 have been taken from laying 
hens in America, England, and Australia. The records 
of some exceptionally high egg producers Have been 
selected and also the average production of a large num- 
ber of fowls where it was possible to obtain authentic 
records of this character. It will be noted that the indi- 
vidual fowls that make high egg records lay consistently 
throughout almost every month in the year, and that 
the only time when they fall off in egg production is 
during the molting period or when they are broody. 

The single hens that do not make such high egg 
records usually lay very well for certain months in 
the year, but are unable to stand .the strain of heavy 



EGGS 



121 



egg laying and fail, sometimes almost completely, in 
other months. 

When the average egg production of a large number 
of fowls is taken, it will be seen that there is a certain 
similarity between their rates of monthly production, but 
if the record of the 80 White Leghorn hens in America 
is compared with that of the 28 American Wyandottes 
and the 6,771 hens of assorted varieties in America, it 
will be seen that the Qgg production in the cold months 
was fully as large as in the spring months, and that the 
production declined only in the fall when the fowls were 
molting. Some hens that are 
prolific egg producers in 
their first year prove very 
unsatisfactory in their sub- 
sequent years, as for in- 
stance, the Australian Silver 
Wyandotte shown in the 
table. To be sure that no 
such hens are selected for 
breeders, it is necessary 
that careful egg records be 
kept. 

In all localities the fewest 
eggs are produced during 
the season of molt and the 
period immediately following 

that season. In the United States, the molt occurs during 
the months that intervene between July and Jan. Natur- 
ally, eggs will sell for the highest prices at this time. 
Hens should be encouraged to lay during these months. 
The greater profit will be made when a prolific yield 
of eggs during the winter months has been secured. 

Pullets that are hatched in the early spring lay at an 
earlier age than do late-hatched pullets. March-hatched 
pullets frequently lay in July, while those hatched in 
July seldom lay before the following March. 




Black Orpington 



122 



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EGGS 123 

STANDARDS FOR EGGS 

Eggs are graded in many ways. The number of grades 
varies in different markets. In general, it may be said 
that eggs are graded according to their size, shape, color 
of shell, finish of shell, and general condition. 

The rules for the classification, grading, and packing 
of market eggs as adopted by the New York Mercantile 
Exchange are as follows: 

Rule 1 — Classification and Grading 

1. Eggs shall be classified as "fresh gathered," "held," 
"refrigerator," and "limed." 

2. There shall be grades of "extras," "extra firsts," 
"firsts," "seconds," "thirds," "No. 1 and 2 dirties," and 
"checks." 

Rule 2 

1. All sales of all grades of eggs shall be at mark. 

Qualities 

2. Fresh gathered extras shall be free from dirty eggs, 
of good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, 
reasonably full, strong bodied, sweet eggs, at the discre- 
tion of the Egg Committee, as follows: 

A— 90%. 

B— 80%. 

C— 65%. 

The balance — other than the loss — may be slightly 
defective in strength or fulness, but must be sweet. The 
maximum total average loss per case permitted in "extras" 
shall vary with the requirement of reasonably full, strong 
bodied eggs as follows: 

A — 90% flill, 1 doz. maximum loss. 

B — 80% full, IJ^ doz. maximum loss. 

C — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss. 

When sold "storage packed," extras must not contain 
an average of more than 12 cracked or checked eggs 
per case. 

3. Fresh gathered firsts (or extra firsts) shall be 
reasonably clean and of good average size, and shall con- 
tain reasonably fresh, reasonably full, strong bodied, 



124 EGGS 

sweet eggs, at the discretion of the Egg Committee, as 
follows: 

A— 75%. 

B— 65%. 

C— 50%. 

D— 40%. 

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in 
strength or fulness, but must be sweet. The maximum 
total average loss per case permitted in "firsts" or "extra 
firsts" shall vary with the requirements of reasonably full, 
strong bodied eggs as follows: 

A — 75% full, IJ^ doz. maximum loss. 

B — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss. 

C — 50% full, 3 doz. maximum loss. 

D — 40% full, 4 doz. maximum loss. 

When sold "storage packed," fresh gathered firsts (or 
extra firsts) must not contain an average of more than 
18 cracked or checked eggs per case. 

4. Fresh gathered seconds shall be reasonably clean 
and of fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, 
reasonably full eggs, at the discretion of the Egg Com- 
mittee, as follows: 

A— 65%. 

B— 50%. 

C— 40%. 

D— 30%. 

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in 
strength or fulness, but must be merchantable stock. The 
maximum total average loss per case permitted in "sec- 
onds" shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full 
eggs required, as follows: 

A — 65% full, 2 doz. maximum loss. 

B — 50% full, 3 doz. maximum loss. 

C — 40% full, 4 doz. maximum loss. 

D — 30% full, 5 doz. maximum loss. 

5. Fresh gathered thirds shall be reasonably clean and 
of fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, 
reasonably full, sweet eggs, at the discretion of the Egg 
Committee, as follows: 



EGGS 125 

A— 50%. 

B— 30%. 

C— 20%. 

The balance — other than the loss — may be defective in 
strength or fulness, but must be merchantable stock. The 
maximum total average loss per case permitted in "thirds" 
shall vary with the requirements of reasonably full, sweet 
eggs, as follows: 

A — 50% full, 4 doz. maximum loss. 

B — 30% full, 5 doz. maximum loss. 

C — 20% full, 6 doz. maximum loss. 

6. Held firsts shall be reasonably clean, of good 
average size, and sweet. At least 40% shall be reason- 
ably full and strong. The balance may be defective in 
strength and fulness, but not badly shrunken, excepting 
the loss. There may be a total average loss of 2 doz. 
per case, but if the loss exceeds that by not more than 
50% the eggs shall be a good delivery upon allowance of 
the excess. 

7. Held seconds shall be reasonably clean and of fair 
average size. May be defective *.in fulness, strength, 
and flavor, but must be merchantable stock, not musty. 
There may be a total average loss of 4 doz. per case. 

8. Refrigerator extras shall be free from dirty or small 
eggs, reasonably full, strong, sweet, and free from mildew 
or foreig'n taste or odor. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 

A— IH doz. 

B— 2 doz. 

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for 
"storage packed." 

9. Refrigerator firsts shall be reasonably clean and of 
good average size; they must be reasonably full, strong, 
and sweet, and free from mildew or foreign taste or odor. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 
A — 2 doz. 
B— 3 doz. 



126 EGGS 

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for 
"storage packed." 

10. Refrigerator seconds shall be reasonably clean and 
of fair average size; 'they must be reasonably full, strong, 
and sweet, and free from mildew or foreign taste or odor. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 

A— 3 doz. 

B— 4 doz. 

Cases shall be substantial, and fillers and packing 
reasonably sweet. 

11. Refrigerator thirds shall be of fair appearance and 
may be off-flavored to some extent. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 
A — 5 doz. 
B— 6 doz. 
Cases shall be substantial. 

12. Limed extras shall be of uniformly good size, well 
cleaned, strong bodied, and reasonably full and sweet. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 

A—V/i doz. 

B— 2 doz. 

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for 
^'storage packed." 

13. Limed firsts shall be of good average size, well 
cleaned, of good strength, reasonably full and sweet. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 

A— 2 doz. 

B— 3 doz. 

Cases, fillers, and packing shall be as required for 
''storage packed." 

14. Limed seconds shall be of fair average size, well 
cleaned, of good strength, and reasonably full and sweet. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 



EGGS 127 

A — 3 doz. 
B— 4 doz. 

Cases shall be substantial, and fillers and packing 
reasonably sweet. 

15. Limed thirds shall comprise stock which is rusty, 
weak, or shows hot weather defects, but must contain at 
least 50% of fairly useful quality. 

The maximum loss shall be, at the discretion of the 
Egg Committee, as follows: 
A — 5 doz. 
B— 6 doz. 
Cases shall be substantial. 

16. No. I dirties may be offered in the classes of Fresh 
Gathered, Held, and Refrigerator. They must be of 
good, useful quality, sweet in flavor. 

The maximum loss shall correspond with the require- 
ments for "firsts" in the class, at the time when offered. 

When sold "storage packed," No. 1 dirties must not 
contain more than 18 cracked or checked eggs per case. 

17. No. 2 dirties may be offered in the classes of Fresh 
Gathered, Held, and Refrigerator. 

The quality, if fresh gathered, shall be the same as 
specified for No. 1 dirties. 

If held, or refrigerator, may be off-flavored, but not 
musty. 

The maximum loss shall correspond with the require- 
ments for "seconds" in the class, and at the time when 
. offered. 

Checked eggs may consist of blind checks and cracked 
eggs (not leaking). They must be sweet in flavor, and 
the loss must not exceed 3 doz. per case. 

18. Loss, as used in these rules, shall comprise all 
rotten, spotted, broken (leaking), broken-yolked, hatched 
(blood-veined), and sour* eggs. Very small, very dirty, 
cracked (not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken, and 
salt eggs shall be counted as half loss in all grades ex- 
cepting dirties and checks. * * * 



128 EGGS 

19. At the discretion of the Egg Committee it may put 
in force two grades of firsts at the same time, one 
requiring a higher proportion of reasonably full, strong- 
bodied eggs than the other, and when this is done, the 
higher of the two grades shall be designated as "extra 
firsts." 

All requirements for grades determined upon by the 
Egg Committee must be chosen from those specified 
under Rule 2. 

20. The classification provided in this rule shall apply 
equally to hen eggs, duck eggs and goose eggs, but in the 
case of duck and goose eggs the maximum loss shall be 
pro rata with the number of dozens contained in the 
packages. 

Rule 3. — Packages and Packing 

1. All grades of eggs not storage packed, shall be in 
new or good second-hand substantial tgg cases, of uni- 
form size. 

Fillers shall be of substantial quality, sweet and dry, 
with flats or other suitable substitutes under bottom 
layers and over tops, and sweet, dry excelgior or other 
suitable packing under bottom and over tops. 

Any grade of eggs not storage packed, which shall 
inspect in quality according to these rules, but be deficient, 
not to exceed 10% in flats or other suitable substitutes 
and tops and bottoms, shall be a good delivery. 

2. Storage packed. When sold as "storage packed," 
all grades must be in new 30 doz. cases, well seasoned, 
smooth, clean, and substantial, fillers dry, sweet, medium. 
No. 1, or other good substantial straw board, flats under 
bottom layers and over tops. The packing shall be dry, 
sweet excelsior under bottoms and over tops, unless 
otherwise specified. 

3. To be a good delivery, all eggs must be packed in 
30 doz. cases except goose eggs, which may be packed in 
any style of packages containing not less than 10 doz. 
each, and duck eggs, which may be packed in any style 
of packages containing not less than IS doz. each. 



EGGS 129 



CARE AND PRESERVATION OF EGGS 
CARE OF EGGS 

The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has given marked attention to in- 
vestigations the results of which it is thought will add 
considerably to the value of egg products by saving 
many millions of dollars as the result of more care in 
handling them. 

Eggs contain a large percentage of moisture, which 
■will evaporate through the shell. The evaporation is 
more rapid when the eggs are exposed to heat or vari- 
ations in temperature. Mr. Greenlee, of the Food Re- 
search Laboratory of the government, says that chemical 
analyses of eggs by various investigators are fairly 
numerous, Hut that little has been done to correlate the 
change in moisture content with the age or condition 
of the egg. 

One investigator, who has made an extensive study 
of eggs, has found that eggs kept for a year show a loss 
of weight equivalent to 10% of the total weight, which 
loss is largely water evaporated from the whites. He 
found also that when fresh eggs are boiled a loss in 
■weight occurs, whereas storage eggs gain in boiling. 
Apparently the whites lose more water than the yolks, 
and consequently gain more in boiling. The boiled 
yolks, when fresh, contain less than 50% of water; when 
cold-stored, this percentage is increased, the figures 
reaching 64% in the last examination. This would indi- 
cate that the yolks of eggs in storage gather moisture 
from the whites and that the whites evaporate moisture 
through the shell. 

Other experiments made by the government chemists 
do not indicate definitely that water passes from the 
white to the yolk. The same results, they say, would 
be obtained if the white took up solids from the yolks. 
They say further that the phenomena of a transfer of 
water from the white to the yolk may easily be ex- 



130 EGGS 

xJained by the simple process of osmosis. The yolk, 
which contains a very high percentage of solids, is 
surrounded by a membraneous tissue called the vitelline 
membrane, which, in turn, is surrounded by the egg 
white, a liquid much more dilute than the yolk. By 
osmosis, the water passes through the membrane from 
the more dilute to the more concentrated solution until 
a constant equilibrium is obtained. This process con- 
tinues until the vitelline membrane becomes so weak 
that it breaks, when the white and the yolk begin to 
lose their identity. 

Professor Lamson writes that the egg is complex 
chemically, and, like milk, it is one of the best places 
for bacteria to multiply. The work of these organisms 
is to simplify or decompose the white and the yolk until 
the egg is seemingly worse than useless; though even 
rotten eggs find a place in the market for polishing 
leather, and are sold by the large packing houses for 
that purpose. 

Fresh-laid eggs will be contaminated if left even for 
a short time under unfavorable conditions. A case of 
eggs that are perfectly good may be taken from cold 
storage on a hot day in summer, hauled from the storage 
house in a wagon to the retail store, be opened imme- 
diately and the eggs placed in baskets for sale. The 
exposure of the eggs so quickly to a heated temperature 
causes moisture to gather on the surface of the shell. 
This is called sweating. The moisture that gathers on 
the egg dissolves the coating of albumen that partly 
fills the pores of the egg; thus, the heated atmosphere 
works through into the interior of the shell and in a 
very few hours the eggs begin to change in quality. By 
the time they are carried home and prepared for the 
table, they are not nearly so good as they would have 
been if they had been properly cared for. 

When the eggs are taken from cold storage or from 
a refrigerator car they should be kept in the store or 
the storehouse away from the cold-storage room for from 
12 to 24 hr. without opening the case. This will temper 



EGGS 131 

the eggs and bring them to or near to the temperature 
of the room. When the case is opened after this wait, 
the eggs will be dry and will be much better for selling 
and for table use than they would be if treated in the 
other manner. The greater part of all the deterioration 
in eggs is directly blamable on careless handling. 

Eggs that are perfectly fresh when put in cold storage 
will, if packed in clean cases and properly stored, be 
quite as good as when removed from cold storage as 
they were when placed there. More cold-storage eggs 
are injured between the time they are removed from 
storage and are sold than are injured while in the cold- 
storage room. If low-grade or inferior eggs are placed 
in cold storage, they will be worse when taken out of 
storage than they were when placed in storage. 

Eggs that are fresh and good and poultry that is fresh, 
good, and properly dressed will, if carefully packed, 
keep in cold storage for many months, and be nearly 
or quite as good for food as they were when placed in 
storage. Eggs that have been heated in transit or that 
have not been cared for properly prior to being placed 
in storage, will have deteriorated when taken from 
storage. Such eggs are the kind that call down con- 
demnation on cold-storage eggs. The same is true of 
dressed poultry. If it is good when placed in storage, it 
•will be good when it comes out; if it is inferior when 
placed in storage it will be less fit for food when taken 
out than it was when it was placed in storage. 

Most fresh-laid eggs are a typically perfect food, but 
they may be infected almost immediately after being 
laid. For example, the filth of nesting material may 
adhere to the moist surface of fresh-laid eggs and so 
infect them as to render them unfit for food. Such con- 
tamination will speedily spoil the eggs in spite of the 
most careful later handling. Eggs left in the nest for 
a few hours when the weather is very hot may be in- 
jured. It is not unusual for the temperature at noon 
to be 98° or 100° inside of some poultry houses. Eggs 
that are laid in infected nesting material and left there 



132 EGGS 

a few hours in such a temperature will, within an hour 
or two, show blood spots and decomposition. 

Laying hens should be kept apart from the males 
during the summer months, because infertile eggs will 
keep good much longer at summer temperatures than 
fertile eggs. There is no reason whatever for the males 
to run with the hens at any other time than during the 
breeding season. 

Quality of Eggs. — Eggs that are old and undesirable may 
be called stale, decomposed, or rotten, according to their 
condition. Any deterioration in eggs brings them and 
their vendor into disfavor. Consumers partial to eggs 
that are perfectly fresh will turn in disgust from eggs 
served in soiled shells. This is reason sufficient for the 
greatest care in safeguarding egg production by means 
of clean houses, clean nests, and clean and healthy hens. 
Eggs should be gathered frequently, at least three or 
four times daily, in both cold and warm weather. AH 
eggs the shells of which are the least bit soiled or oif- 
colored should be placed by themselves to be cleaned 
and sorted or graded before they are sent to market. 

No other food product will gain in price from proper 
grading so greatly as eggs. They can be graded in size, 
shape, color, and cleanliness, with the result of always 
enhancing the price. 

Freshness and internal conditions may be determined 
by candling. The process of candling is simple. A 
lamp is placed inside a pasteboard box having a hole 
in the top through which the heat of the lamp may 
escape, and a hole two-thirds the diameter of the egg 
in the side of the box just opposite or even with the 
flame of the lamp. By placing the egg against the hole 
in the side of the box the interior of the egg can be " 
plainly seen. If the contents are perfectly bright and 
clear, the egg is fresh and fit for food. If spots, shades, 
or lines are visible through the shell, the egg is more or 
less deteriorated. Eggs must be tested in a dark room. 
There are several kinds of egg testers sold for very 
moderate prices. Persons who sell eggs should have one 



EGGS 133 

of these testers and test all their eggs before sending 
them to market. 

Eggs differ considerably in size, shape, and color. 
When eggs are packed for market, either in dozen car- 
tons or in egg cases of large size, thos.e of one size 
and one color should be packed by themselves. The 
standard size for market eggs is 24 oz. per doz., each 
egg averaging 2 oz. Eggs smaller than this are under 
size; those that are larger are over size. Over-sized 
eggs all of one color packed in clear cases will bring 
the highest prices in the markets. Eggs that vary in 
size, shape, and color, even though perfectly fresh, sell 
for lower prices. It is not unusual to see fresh-laid 
eggs all of one size, shape, and color selling for 25 to 40 
per cent, higher than eggs equally fresh, but of miscel- 
laneous sizes, shapes, and colors. 

Eggs selected for hatching should be the finest obtain- 
able. Never hatch an egg that is small in size or 
inferior in shape and color. If this rule is closely 
adhered to for a few years, the egg product of a poultry 
farm will almost double in value. The same rigid selec- 
tion and grading should be followed and continued year 
after year, for both hatching and selling, until no poor 
eggs, or at least very few, are produced. 

The shells of all eggs should be smooth and free from 
indentations and unevenness. The surface of the shell 
should be finished and have a polished appearance. If 
the shells are white, they should be perfectly white and 
free from any tint or shade whatever; if brown or 
tinted, they should have an even shade of color. When 
the shells are irregular in form or color they are classed 
as seconds, thirds, or miscellaneous in quality. No 
eggs of this kind should ever be found in the first 
selection, because they will lessen the value of the 
entire lot. 

Not all of the fowls of any one breed lay eggs of 

proper size, shape, and color, but some hens of all breeds 

and varieties lay such eggs. By proper selection of eggs 

for hatching, all breeds and varieties might within 10 or 

10 



134 EGGS 

12 yr. be so developed as to produce eggs of the size and 
color proper for the various breeds. No one breed excels 
all others as layers; there are good layers in all breeds 
and varieties. The production oi many eggs of proper 
size, shape, and color may be accomplished with any 
breed by proper breeding, selection, and care. 

The. color of the yolk may be influenced largely by 
feeding plenty of green stuff. Experiment has shown 
that the eating of dried alfalfa leaves by the hens will 
produce eggs of good yolk color. White beets or mangels 
eaten plentifully will produce eggs having a very pale 
yolk. Carrots, kale, spinach, green clover, and many 
other kinds of green feed will influence the color of the 
yolk. A plentiful supply of grass will always insure 
eggs with yolks of good, rich color and fine flavor. 

Green clover, alfalfa, rye, grass, or young corn are all 
good for feeding to laying hens, because they impart fine 
color and flavor to the eggs. The feeding of green rape, 
millet, or mustard is apt to make both the color and 
flavor undesirable. No kind of green stuff is better for 
feeding to hens in confinement during the summer 
months than short lawn clippings when perfectly fresh. 
Carefully selected feed of all kinds is most desirable, 
because of the tendency of the feed to flavor the eggs. 

PRESERVING EGGS 

It is quite as necessary to have eggs well selected as 
it is to have them properly preserved for keeping. That 
is, eggs that are to be kept should be fresh, infertile, 
if it is possible to have them so, and all of them should 
be laid in April, May, or the early part of June. No 
eggs should ever be stored that are laid when the maxi- 
mum temperature is above 60°. When eggs are gathered' 
they should be kept in a cool place where the temperature 
averages between 40° F. and 55° F. They should never be 
put in the preservative until they have been cooled thor- 
oughly. The eggs that are used for pickling or preserv- 
ing should have smooth, strong shells. Eggs with shells 
that are rough or porous are not well suited for storage. 



EGGS 135 

The eggs should not be washed or exposed to the heat 
of the stove or sun. Never keep eggs, either in or out 
of storage, where they are in danger of contamination 
from potatoes, onions, kerosene oil, or anything that will 
impart an odor which may be absorbed by the eggs. 

The best method of keeping the eggs good for food for 
any length of time is that of cold storage. The ideal 
cold storage for eggs is that which has a temperature 
ranging between 32° F. and 36° F, The atmosphere 
should be dry or nearly so, yet there should be sufficient 
moisture in the air to prevent evaporation of the eggs. 
The requirements for success in keeping eggs are that 
they shall be protected from evaporation and that there 
shall be no penetration which makes possible the de- 
struction of the eggs through the presence of bacteria 
and molds. 

Eggs may be kept for a longer or shorter time, accord- 
ing to their condition and the method used to preserve 
them. Eggs packed in bran, oats, or perfectly dry sand 
will keep longer than eggs exposed to the air. Eggs 
packed in salt and kept in a temperature of 50° F. or 
55° F. where it is perfectly dry will keep good for a 
number of months. Eggs coated with shellac, varnish, 
vaseline, or tallow, and stored in a dry cool place will 
keep for a number of weeks. 

The most successful method of storing eggs at home 
is by the use of liquid preparations made for the pur- 
pose. The use of lime water for this purpose has been 
general throughout the world. In France a solution with 
from 8 to 10% of unslaked lime or 20% of slaked lime in 
pure water is used. In the United States a solution 
containing both salt and lime is in common use. 

Eggs laid during the month of April should, if possi- 
ble, be selected for storing; they keep better than eggs 
laid at other times. Eggs laid in May and June are 
next best. The reason for this lies in the fact that 
April eggs are usually very choice, because the fowls 
can have a plentiful supply of fresh-grown green food, 
which adds a rich color to the yolk and a delicate flavor 



136 EGGS 

to the egg. Some eggs do not keep well, however, no 
matter when they may be laid. Hens that have the free 
range of barnyards, cow barns, and pig pens gather food 
that is liable to spoil the flavor of the eggs. Besides, ' 
such food may transmit properties to the eggs that will 1 
prove detrimental to their keeping. When eggs are * 
perfectly fresh they will keep very well, provided they 
are gathered, as has been stated, during weather that ; 
is not warm and are put into the preservative as soon I 
as the animal heat has left them. f 

The success obtained from preserving eggs depends * 
largely on the care . in selecting them, the preparation 
of the preserving liquid, and the temperature of the 
place, of storage. Eggs of bad flavor will not improve 
from this or any other method of preserving. Eggs with 
a bad odor before being put into the preserving liquid 
■will deteriorate rather than improve. Eggs of poor 
quality will not be made better, but good eggs will 
remain good when they have been put away properly. 

Eggs may be preserved in lime water provided they are 
kept in tall vessels; either stone crocks or butter tubs 
can be used. The liquid for covering the eggs is made 
in the proportion of 3 gal. of water to 1 lb. of salt and 
1 qt. of finely slaked lime, the lime and salt to be mixed 
in the water. This is to be stirred frequently for a 
period of 1 to 2 da. Following this, the liquid should be 
permitted to settle. The crock or tub is then almost 
filled with eggs, placed, as far as possible, with the 
small end down. The clear liquid solution of lime and 
salt is poured over them until the surface of the water 
is fully an inch above the top of the eggs. The vessel 
should be kept in an out-of-the-way place, where the 
temperature will not exceed 50° F. A thin covering of 
lime will form on top of the liquid. If undisturbed, this 
covering will protect the contents from outer influences. 

A solution made of 1 gal. of sodium silicate, or water 
glass, and 9 gal. of water is an efficient preservative for 
eggs. The water glass must be diluted with warm water 
and be stirred until thoroughly mixed with the water. 



EGGS 137 

When cool, this solution should be poured over eggs 
placed in vessels as described in the foregoing para- 
graph. Eggs will keep fairly fresh in this solution for 
5 or 6 mo., and they have been kept in edible condition 
for a year. This can be accomplished, however, only 
when they are kept in cool places and in a temperature 
not above 45° F. Experiments have shown that under 
some conditions a solution of 5% of water glass and 95% 
of water will answer for the keeping of eggs; and they 
have kept fairly well in a 3% solution of the same 
material. The quantity used depends on the strength 
of the water glass, which is a chemical preparation that 
may be of several strengths. When the water glass used 
is of the highest grade, less is required than of the 
lower grades. 

It is of advantage to know the size of the receptacle 
needed for the eggs and the quantity of liquid needed 
to submerge them. A 5-gal. jar will hold about 16 doz. 
eggs. The best results in keeping eggs in water glass 
will be realized by placing them in a solution made of 
1 part water glass and 9 parts water. This solution will 
evaporate more or less. For this reason water should be 
added to keep the solution properly balanced for pre- 
serving the eggs. If waste by evaporation is permitted, 
the solution will become thick and heavy. When this 
occurs, the eggs in the solution will not continue to be 
so good as they will be if the solution is kept of the 
proper consistency. 

Mr, Olsen, of the Washington Experiment Station, sug- 
gests the following as sufficient solution to cover the 
number of eggs indicated: 



Capacity of 


Number of 


Water-Glass 


Container 


Eggs 


Solution 


1 gallon 


40 


ZYa, pints 


2 gallons 


80 


754 pints 


3 gallons 


120 


10^ pints 


4 gallons 


160 


14^ pints 


5 gallons 


200 


18 pints 


10 gallons 


400 


Z6 pints 



138 EGGS 

When the eggs are removed from the solution they 
should be rinsed so as to be entirely free from the lime 
water or the solution of water glass. To do this, the 
eggs can be placed either in a sieve or a colander, and 
a running stream of fresh water permitted to pass over 
them, or buckets of fresh water may be poured over 
them. After being thoroughly rinsed, and before they 
are packed for shipment, they should be laid out on a 
dry cloth or on boards until they have become thor- 
oughly dry. 

A sodium-silicate powder is now used to some extent 
for preserving eggs in place of liquid water glass. It 
has the same property and it is called water-glass powder. 
One pound of this powder mixed with 9 pints of warm 
water will make a solution that is fully equal to the 
solution made of the liquid water glass and warm water. 
Eggs will keep quite as well in this as in the liquid 
water-glass mixture. The powder form is more cleanly 
and less difficult to handle. It is used in the same way 
as the liquid water glass. When purchasing the powder 
be sure to get the true water-glass powder. 

Another substitute which is called a lime-water prepa- 
ration is known as Garantol. 



JUDGING EGGS 

The largest displays of dressed poultry and market 
eggs have been made in Boston. Efforts have been made 
with more or less success toward the holding of egg dis- 
plays in other parts of the country. The colleges at 
Lafayette, Ind., Mountain Grove, Mo., Ithaca, N. Y., 
and State College, Pa., have all held such displays. The 
score-card method of judging such displays has been 
used to a greater or less extent. The first score card 
of which we have any knowledge was compiled by 
George Fletcher and used by him in judging egg dis- 
plays in Boston. 



EGGS 



139 



In the use of a score card an entry of eggs consists of one dozen, an exhibit 
consists of three dozen, and a display of six dozen. 

Official Score Qrd for Eggs 

(Copyright 1915 By The American Poultry Association) 





(Name of Show or Association) 






EXHIBITOR 


(Date, Month, Days and Year of Show) 






Address 




..}-•%■■.■• 





Class -r..:...i ■..,.. .Entry No., 

n......rr... ...Weight.... 



Color. . 



.Oz.. 



SCORE CARD FOR EXHIBITION AND FOR 
COMMERCIAL EGGS 

When judging an exhibit of eggs, the scores of the eggs forming each indi- 
vidual entry are to be added together; the total then being divided by the number of 
eggs, comprising the entry ; and the average so obtained shall be the score of the 
.entry. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS 
Exhibition Egg: Cracked shell; extremely dirty or stained shell; foreign shell- 
color; pronounced irregularity of shape; sign of incubation or germ-growth; 
decay, rot, mould, or mustiness; blood rings; foreign odor; or any condition 
that renders it unfit for food. 



Commercial Egg: Sign of incubation or germ growth; decay, rot, mould, or mus- 
tiness ;. blood ring; or any condition that renders it unfit for food. 


Divisions and Score of a Perfect Egg 


Score of 
This Entry 


Remarks 


Size or Weight (including uniformity).. 15 
Cleanliness ....... ■ J5 










Shape (including uniformity) 5 

Shell Color (including uniformity) ....-,• 5 










Sheil Texture ^ . . . .-. 5 






Fullness (as indicated by air cell) 15 

Quality and Firmness of. Yolk......;... 20 












' 













140 EGGS 

Several of the poultry departments of colleges located 
in the eastern part of the United States have compiled 
score cards. One of the best of these was compiled by 
the committee of the American Poultry Association for 
use in the "American Poultry and Egg Standard," which 
had not been published up to 1919. This score card 
(shown on page 139) has been copyrighted by the Amer- 
ican 'Poultry Association and can be obtained from the 
secretary of the association for general use. 

The color of the shell of all the eggs in any entry 
should be alike, that is, 1 doz. of white eggs should be 
all pure white, 1 doz. of brown eggs should be, all of 
them, one even shade of brown and all alike. 

A perfect egg should be oval in shape, about one and 
a half times as long as thick, and should taper evenly. 
Uniformity of shape should be demanded and color 
should have almost equal consideration with shape. All 
eggs must be perfectly clean and free from stains, and 
the surface of the shell must be firm, smooth, and free 
from uneven places. 

The size of the air cell is likely to be the best external 
test of age. An egg that is perfectly fresh should not 
show an air cell that is larger than a 10-cent piece. The 
albumen, or white, of the egg should be firm, and the 
shell should be almost entirely filled, leaving only the 
very small air cell visible to a strong light. All eggs 
should be candled, especially in keen competition. 



EGG PRICES 

The prices of eggs throughout the world are governed 
largely by the prices paid in the densely populated cen- 
ters. These prices for the United States are governed 
by the prices paid in Boston, Chicago, and New York. 
Toronto is the market center of Canada; London and 
Manchester make the prices for Europe. Eggs are quoted 
in the United States and Canada by the dozen, or by 
the crate, which contains 30 doz. In London the quota- 



EGGS 141 

tion is by the long hundred (120). Eggs are designated 
in the London market according to the locality from 
which they are sent, and as this is, to a certain extent, 
an indication of their freshness and quality, it has an 
influence on the quotations. The highest quotations are 
for the best English eggs, and they are usually fully 
equal to the prices asked in America for fancy hennery 
eggs. French, Danish, and Italian eggs will grade with 
what we call near-by eggs and eggs for storage in 
America. The best of the eggs that are sent from Ire- 
land over to London are sold for English eggs. Eggs 
from more distant countries are graded about the same 
as our second or third qualities in America. 

Prior to 1914, eggs like those sold in the New York 
market as fancy hennery for 25c. a dozen sold in London 
at about 22c. a dozen. During 1917 and 1918, eggs that 
sold in New York as fancy hennery at 70c. sold in 
London for $1.20. During the winter of 1918-1919 the best 
grade of fancy hennery eggs sold in New York for 90c. 
to $1.00 a dozen, while the same grade of eggs sold in 
England for $1.78 a dozen. Eggs have sold in New York 
prior to 1914 from as low as 17c. a dozen in April to as 
high as 52c. in winter. The average price on the New 
York market during 1917 was 52c. 

Prior to 1912 there was published in this book a 
comparison of egg prices in the New York and London 
markets, a part of which we repeat. The following com- 
parison is made from the quotations given in the New 
York and London markets for the month of May, 1909. 
As an English shilling was then equivalent to 24^c. in 
American money, and an English penny was equivalent 
to 2c., the London quotations of 8/4 to 9/2 for 120 eggs 
is about equivalent to 20c. to 22c. a dozen. The quota- 
tions given cannot be accepted as a guide for the selling 
price of eggs, but they furnish an approximate indication 
of the relative selling prices in New York and London. 
Eggs sold in New York at that same date at from 23c. 
to 25c. a dozen. The prices fluctuate considerably in 
both markets at different seasons of the year. During 



142 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

the years 1917 and 1918 eggs sold in the London market 
at about 20c. to 25c. a dozen more than they were sold 
for in the New York market. 

The indications are that eggs will continue to be very 
high in price throughout the world for several years. 

The prices paid for eggs in America during the winter 
and spring of 1918 and 1919 are some indication of what 
they are likely to sell for in the future. The grading 
of eggs is likely to be changed throughout the world, 
thus to standardize, if possible, all grades of eggs in all 
countries. There will be an effort to do the same as to 
price grading of market poultry. 



SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRO- 
" DUCTION 



RULES FOR JUDGING 

The poultry departments of agricultural colleges and 
of experiment stations have worked continually for 
several years to devise a plan or method which might 
be followed in the selecting of the best laying hens in 
flocks of poultry. 

The pelvic-bone system which is a part of the Hogan 
system has been used to a considerable extent. This 
system describes the best layers as having pelvic bones 
that are thin and so placed that four fingers may be held 
between the point of the breast bone and the end of the 
pelvic bone. This can be done only when the hen is a 
prolific layer and in full lay. Another test is that the 
points of the pelvic bone of a good layer stand wide 
apart. The disadvantage of this system is that if the 
best layers are examined when in full lay and examined 
again when not laying at all there will be a marked 
difference in the distances between both of these meas- 
urements. This is caused by a shrinkage in the abdomen 
when the hen is not laying. 



SELECTING HENS FOR EGG. PRODUCTION 143 

Poultrymen of New York, New Jersey, and parts o£ 
Connecticut and Pennsylvania are partial to White Leg- 
horns. The experts at the head of the poultry depart- 
ments of these states have devised a plan for judging 
the past record of laying hens; in other words, they have 
devised a set of rules which may best be applied to 
laying hens during the fall to make certain which of 
them have produced the most eggs during the past year. 
The work done along this line in these several states 
was presented to a large gathering of poultry experts, 
poultry judges, and college professors at Cornell Uni- 
versity early in July of 1918. All who had done work 
along this line presented the results obtained by them, 
and after considerable consultation a set of rules was 
adopted for judging fowls for good production. These 
rules are as follows: 

A METHOD OF JUDGING FOWLS FOR EGG 
PRODUCTION 

(Formulated at the Judging School held at Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y., July 1-6, 1918, and approved 
by the American Association of Instructors and Investi- 
gators in Poultry Husbandry.) 

In order to lay well a fowl must have a sound body. 
As a first consideration it must be vigorous and healthy 
if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are 
shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set body, a com- 
paratively active disposition, and a good circulation. 
Further, the fowl must be free from physical defects 
such as crooked beak, long toe nails, eyelids that over- 
hang so that it cannot see well, scaly leg, or anything 
that would keep it from seeing or getting an abundance 
of food. 

In the illustration on the following page the parts of a 
fowl that receive particular attention in judging fowls 
for egg production are numbered, and the names of the 
numbered parts are given. 

Loss of Fat Due to Laying.— A laying fowl uses up the 
surplus fat in the body, especially that just under the 
skin. In yellow-skinned breeds this loss of fat can 



144 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The 
different parts of the body tend to become white, accord- 
ing to the quantity of the fat stored in the body and 
the amount of circulation of blood through that part. 
The changes occur in the following order: 

The vent changes very quickly with egg production so 
that white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned fowl gener- 




Names of Numbered Parts 



1. 


Vent 


7. 


Abdomen 


2. 


Eye ring 


8. 


Pelvic arches 


3. 


Ear lobes 


9. 


Sternal processes 


4. 


Beak 


10. 


Comb 


5. 


Shank 


11. 


Wattles 


6. 


Heel of shank 







ally indicates that it is laying; a yellow vent means 
the opposite. It should be recognized that all yellow 
color changes are dependent on the feed, coarseness of 
skin, and size of the fowl. A heavy fowl fed on an 
abundance of green feed or other material that will 
color the fat deep yellow will not bleach out nearly so 
quickly as one of a pale yellow color. 



SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 145 

The eye ring, that is, the inner edges of the eyelids, 
bleach out a trifle more slowly than the vent. The ear 
lobes on Leghorns and Anconas bleach out a little more 
slowly than the eye ring, so that a bleached ear lobe 
means a little longer or greater production than a 
bleached vent or eyelid. 

The color goes out of the beak beginning at the base, 
and gradually disappears until it finally leaves the front 
part of the upper beak. The lower beak bleaches faster 
than the upper but may be used where the upper is 
obscured by horn or black. On the average-colored, 
yellow-skinned bird, a bleached beak means heavy pro- 
duction for at least 4 to 6 wk. 

The shanks are the slowest to bleach out and hence 
indicate a much longer period of production than the 
other parts. The yellow goes out from the scales on the 
front of the shanks first and finally from the scales on 
the rear. The scales on the heel or rear of the hock 
joint of the shank are the last to bleach out and may 
generally be used as an index as to the natural depth 
of yellow color of the fowl. A bleached-out shank 
usually indicates fairly heavy production for at least 
IS to 20 wk. 

The yellow color comes back into the vent, eye ring, 
ear lobes, beak, and shanks in the same order that it 
•went out, only the color returns much more quickly 
than it goes out. A vacation or rest period can some- 
times be determined by the end of the beak being 
bleached and the base being yellow. 

Body Changes Due to Laying. — A laying hen has a 
large, moist vent showing a dilated condition and loose- 
ness as compared with the hard, puckered vent of a non- 
laying hen. 

The whole abdomen is dilated as well as the vent, so 
that the pelvic arches are widespread and the keel is 
forced down, away from the pelvic arches so as to give 
large capacity. The more eggs a fowl is going to lay the 
following week the greater will be the size of the ab- 
domen. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course, 



146 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

influenced by the size of eggs laid and by the size of 
the fowl. 

Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin 
and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches. Fat 
goes out from the skin and body with production, so that 
the heavy producers have a soft, velvety skin that is not 
underlaid by layers of hard fat. The abdomen in par- 
ticular is soft and pliable. 

The sternal processes are very prominent and are gener- 
ally bent outward. The thicker and blunter the pelvic 
arches and the greater the amount of hard fat in the 
abdomen the less the production or the longer time since 
production. 

One of the finer indications, but yet one of the most 
valuable in picking a good layer is the fineness of the 
head and the closeness and dryness of feathering. The 
head of a high layer is fine. The wattles and ear lobes 
fit close to the beak and are not loose and flabby. The 
face is clean cut. The eye is full, round, and prominent, 
especially when seen from the front. The high layer is 
trimmer, that is, the feathers lie closer to the body, and 
after heavy production the oil does not keep the plumage 
relatively sleek and glossy but the plumage becomes worn 
and threadbare. 

Changes in Secondary Sexual Characters.— The comh, 
wattles, and ear lobes enlarge or contract, depending on 
the ovary. If the comb, wattles, and ear lobes are large, 
full, and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is laying 
heavily. If the comb is limp, the bird is only laying 
slightly, and is not laying at all when the comb is dried 
down, especially at molting time. If the comb is warm, 
it is an indication that the fowl is coming back into pro- 
duction. 

Molting. — ^When a fowl stops laying in the summer she 
usually begins to molt. The later a hen lays in the 
summer or the longer the per!od during which she lays, 
the greater will be her production, so that the high 
producer is the late layer and hence the late molter. 
The length Oif time that a hen has been molting or has 



SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 147 

stopped laying can be determined by the molting of the 
primary feathers. It takes about 6 wk. to renew com- 
pletely the primary feathers next to the axial feathers 
and an additional 2 wk, for each additional primary to 
be renewed. 

Temperament and Activity.— A good layer is more 
active and nervous and yet more easily handled than a 
poor layer. A high layer shows more friendliness and 
yet elusiveness than a poor bird. A low producer is 
shy and stays on the edge of the flock and will squawk 
when caught. 

While the characters discussed have dealt specifically 
■with the one year's production, it should be borne in 
mind that a high producer one year is, generally speak- 
ing, a high producer in all other years. 

SCORE CARD 

The table on page 148 is a sample score of 15 White 
Leghorns that was made at Cornell University in July, 
1918. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. refer to the grade in 
which the fowl is classed, 1 being the highest. The 
terms used are the same as those used in the preceding 
rules, as, for instance, vent, eye ring, etc. Abdomen and 
capacity are used quite like the ruling in the Hogan 
system. By studying carefully the rules for judging and 
this table you will have all the information relative to 
this work that has been evolved up to the time of the 
printing of this book. The number of eggs estimated and 
the number of actual eggs are shown in comparison. The 
estimate was made by the expert who examined the 
15 White Leghorns and made this record card. The 
actual number of eggs laid, as shown in the last column, 
was obtained through the use of trap nests. In the 
table, x indicates a blank and the terra capacity relates 
to capacity as an egg layer. 



148 SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 





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SELECTING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 149' 

BARRON METHOD OF SELECTING LAYERS 

Thomas Barron, of England, was the first to make a 
careful study of the breeding of hens for egg production. 
He was very successful in this. His efforts aroused 
poultrymen throughout the world, and today in every 
land where poultry is kept there is an unusual effort 
being made to breed for better egg production. The 
results of these efforts have shown themselves very 
plainly in the increased number of eggs per hen laid 
throughout the civilized world. 

Mr. Barron was the first to present a model in writing 
describing the physical characteristics of layers. This 
is his description: 

Physical Characteristics of Layers 

Size. — Medium for the breed, tending toward neither 
extreme. 

Plumage.' — Rather tight in feather. 

Head. — Skull rather narrow, with full, bright eye. 
Rather short, stout bill. Comb fine in texture. Size not 
as important as texture. 

Neck. — Rather long, not too thick. 

Body. — Breast prominent and rather long. Back long 
and wide across the hips. Good cushion. In short, a 
square-built bird with body held at such an angle as to 
throw the stern much lower than the breast. 

Legs. — Medium in length and set well apart. 

Tail. — Carried rather high. 

The whole appearance of the bird should be trim and 
active. 

I also pay some attention to the pelvic bones, the 
pointed bones, which may be felt just above the vent. 
These should be well separated. 

The above, in brief, outlines my method of breeding 
and selecting heavy layers. It is given to the poultrymen 
of America in the hope that it may be of benefit to them.. 

Thomas Barron 
11 



ISO ARTIFICIAL LIGHT TO INCREASE 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHT TO INCREASE 
EGG PRODUCTION 

By the use of artificial light in the laying houses, it 
has been found possible to make hens lay more e^gs 
during the months when the daylight is shortest and 
the price of eggs is highest. 

Writing in February, 1919, Professor James E. Rice, of 
Cornell University, says: "One of the most sensational 
developments of modern poultry husbandry is the dis- 
covery that by the use of artificial light as an aid to 
feeding and activity the distribution of egg production 
throughout the year can be radically changed. So great 
is the change and so certain the results when artificial 
light is properly applied to the right kind of stock, in 
conjunction with proper methods of feeding, that it is 
destined to revolutionize egg production and the market 
egg receipts. 

"It will have the double effect of (1) materially in- 
creasing the production and hence the market receipts 
of the autumn and early winter eggs, and (2) propor- 
tionately decreasing the production and receipts during 
the spring and early summer months. 

"The place where the most marked results from the use 
of artificial light are seen is in the more rapid develop- 
ment of late-maturing pullets and hens which under 
normal conditions would not have laid until toward 
spring. Here the difference due to the use of artificial 
light is truly surprising. Here also is where the largest 
profits are to be made by aiding the hens to lay the eggs 
in the autumn and winter months when they are nor- 
mally highest in price, instead of boarding the hens 
until spring and then getting the same eggs when they 
are cheap. Then, however, nearly as many eggs are 
produced in the spring as if the hens had not laid during 
the autumn and winter. Those which have ceased to 
lay in the spring after a winter of heavy production can 



EGG PRODUCTION 151 

be sold on a higher priced market than was available 
for the same fowls in the previous autumn." 

Probably thirty to forty commercial egg farms in New 
Jersey tested, in 1918-1919, the use of artificial illumina- 
tion for increasing egg production during the short-day 
period from September 1 to March 1. Fourteen of these 
plants reported monthly to the Poultry Department of 
the State Agricultural College, New Brunswick, N. J., 
where the records were inspected by Harry R, Lewis, 
Professor of Poultry Husbandry, and placed in charge 
of his assistant for compilation. It is expected that a 
Bulletin telling of the results of these experiments will 
be published by the State Agricultural College, New 
Brunswick, N. J. A complete thesis on the subject can 
be obtained from the Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 
III. 

The theory advanced is that the use of artificial light 
in the poultry houses allows the hens more hours for 
eating, thus giving them as much time for feeding as 
they would ordinarily have in the spring and the addi- 
tional food eaten results in increased number of eggs. 

Electric lights are used where they can be had at a 
reasonable price. Lanterns are made especially for this 
purpose and some use tubular lanterns. The houses are 
lighted 'from 4:30 P. M. until 8 or 10 P. M., and from 
5 A. M. till daylight. 



152 



MARKET POULTRY 



MARKET POULTRY 

Digestibility of Poultry and Other Foods.— In poultry 
and other meats and fish, about 70% of the protein, 
95% of the fat, and 98% of the carbohydrates are diges- 
tible. The food principles in vegetable foods are not 
as fully digestible, for in such foods only about 84% 
of the protein, 90% of the fat, and 97% of the carbohy- 
drates are digestible. 

In the table giving the comparison of poultry and 
certain other foods is shown the composition of some 

foodstuffs, and it will 
be seen from this 
that poultry meat 
compares very favor- 
ably in food value 
with beef, fish, eggs, 
milk, and potatoes. 
On an average, the 
various kinds of 
poultry furnish not 
far from 5% more 
protein and a little 
more ash than do the 
other kinds of meat 
included in the table. 
On the other hand, 
the poultry meats 
most used— chicken and fowl — contain relatively little 
fat and have a relatively small fuel value. Pound for 
pound, poultry contains a trifle more of the building 
materials required by the body, but furnishes less of 
the energy-giving materials than the fat meats. As a 
general thing, young fowls contain less refuse than older 
ones, which means that the proportion of total bone 
weight is smaller; their flesh also contains more water, 
which indicates that it is not so solid and compact as in 
older fowls. 




Silver-Gray Dorking 



MARKET POULTRY 



153 



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MARKET POULTRY 



Loss of Weight in Dressing Fowls.— On an average, 
nearly one-third of the total weight of a fowl is lost 
in dressing and in preparing it for cooking. In the 
case of fowls thin in flesh, the loss is much greater than 
this. The least waste occurs in fowls that have been 
properly fattened. Excessively fat fowls and also 
those that are poor in flesh show a large proportion of 
waste on being dressed. 

The table showing the loss in dressing fowls is a 
summary of an investigation at the Storrs Experiment 
Station, Connecticut. In this experiment fowls in all 
conditions — well-fattened, thin, and excessively fat — were 
used, and their weights at different stages in the process 
of dressing were noted. Consequently the results given 
in the table may be considered as applicable to average 
conditions. 

LOSS IN DRESSING FOWLS 



Kind of 
. Fowls 


Num- 
ber of 

Birds 


Live 
Weight 
Pounds 


Weight- 
Bled and 
Plucked 
Pounds 


Loss 
Per 

Cent. 


Weight- 
Intes- 
tines, 
Head, 
and 
Peet Re- 
moved 
Pounds 


Loss 
Per 

Cent. 


Cocks 

Cockerels . 

Hens 

Pullets 


18 
278 
201 

47 


127.9 
1,773.0 
1,195.0 

261.1 


117.9 
1,577.5 
1,103.4 

240.0 


7.8 

11.0 

7.7 

8.1 


97.8 

1,312.0 

906.3 

193.7 


23.5 
26.0 
24.2 
25.8 


Total. . . 


544 


3,357.0 


3,038.8 


9.5 


2,509.8 


25.2 



The per cent, loss in dressing fowls of different 
breeds is given in the following table. 

Classes of Market Poultry.— There are two general 
classes of market poultry, the heavy-weight and the me- 
dium-weight. The heavy-weight class includes such 
fowls as the Brahmas, Cochins, Dorkings, and Orpingtons. 



MARKET POULTRY 



155 



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156 



MARKET POULTRY 



The medium-weight class includes such general-purpose 
fowls as the Wyandottes and Barred Plymouth Rocks. In 
addition to these fowls, broilers and other small market 
fowls are often made from Leghorns and crosses of 
Leghorns with some of the general-purpose fowls. 

Classes of Broilers and Roasters.— Broilers are divided 
into three classes: squab broilers, spring broilers, and 
fryers or large broilers or small roasters. Squab broilers 
range in size from 54 to 1 lb. each in weight. They 
are used by hotels and restaurants during the winter 
and early spring. Spring broilers are used a little later 
in the season. When plump they range in weight from 
1 to V/2 lb. The weight demanded increases as the 
season advances, until the 2-lb. size is most popular. 
Fryers, large broilers, or small roasters range in weight 
from 2 to 3 lb. Roasters are generally of two kinds: 
plump, meaty roasters and soft roasters. 

The time required to produce broilers and roasters 
is shown in the accompanying table. The time required 
for a chick to grow to marketable size depends largely 
on the quality of the chick and its breed. Not all 
breeds mature alike, and the individuals of any one 
breed will not develop at a uniform rate, but when 
bred and fed as they ought to be the average is about 
as indicated in the table. 



TIME REQUIRED TO RAISE BROILERS AND 
ROASTERS 



Breeds of Fowls 


.2 






lis 








1 
1 


1 
2 


2 


4 

4 
5 


6 

6 

7 




American breeds 

English and Belgian 


7 
7 


Brahmas 


9 











MARKET POULTRY 157 

KILLING AND PLUCKING OF POULTRY 

Killing. — The most satisfajctory methods of killing 
poultry are by dislocating the neck, and by sticking 
in the roof of the mouth and piercing the brain with 
a knife. 

In killing by dislocating the neck, the fowl is held in 
front of the operator with the head hanging down; 
both shanks are firmly grasped with the left hand; 
the neck of the fowl at the base of the skull is taken 
between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, 
with the back of the hand toward the tail of the fowl 
and the head held firmly in the palm of the hand; the 
head is then pulled downwards to extend the neck to 
its full length; the final step in the operation is taken 
by pulling with a jerk the already taut neck and at 
the same time twisting the head upwards, This will 
dislocate the head from the backbone, paralyzing the 
fowl, snap the arteries in the neck, and pull the head 
away from the neck, leaving a cavity in the neck large 
enough to hold the blood of the fowl. In this operation 
no blood will escape from the body, and it is preferred 
by some as the best method of killing fowls intended for 
immediate sale. When such fowls are prepared for 
cooking, if the head is severed 1 or 2 in. back of where 
the blood has settled, all of the blood clot will be 
removed. 

Killing by sticking in the roof of the mouth may be done 
with a special killing knife or with a common pocket 
knife that has a sharp point and blade. Both shanks of 
the fowl are tied with a small piece of rope and the loose 
end of the rope is tied to some support so that the fowl 
will hang head downwards and at about the height 
of the operator's shoulder. The head of the fowl is 
grasped in the left hand, the mouth pressed open, and 
the blade of the knife thrust through the roof of the 
mouth and up into the brain almost in a line with 
the eye; a cross-cut is made to sever the arteries. This 
operation paralyzes the fowl instantly, and the cutting 



158 



MARKET POULTRY 



of the arteries allows the fowl to bleed freely from the 
mouth. To avoid being splashed with blood, the mouth 
of the fowl should be heid away from the operator. 
This method of killing is commonly practiced in most 
market poultry establishments. 

Plucking.— To make the best appearance when offered 
for sale in the market, a fowl must be plucked carefully 
so that the skin will not be torn. An experienced plucker 
•will rub the feathers down the wrong way both on the 
back and breast, using the flat of his hand to press 
down and open up the plumage. When the feathers are 
separated in this way they 
may be quickly plucked 
from the body by holding 
the shanks and the tips of 
the feathers in the hand. 
The feathers should first be 
pulled from the back, then 
from the breast and body, 
leaving only the long, stiff 
feathers. These should be 
plucked and placed by them- 
selves. The best plan is to 
put the long feathers or 
those having heavy quills 
into a box or barrel separate 
from the smaller or lighter 
feathers. With some prac- 




HOUDAN 



tice the operator will soon learn to remove all of the 
feathers quickly from the body of the fowl. The process 
should begin immediately after the fowl has been killed. 
By whatever method it is killed, the feathers will come 
away easier immediately after killing than they will 
after the body of the fowl has cooled and become set. 

The practice of scalding before plucking is generally 
followed. The chief difficulty in this is that the fowls 
are dipped into water that is too hot and are frequently 
kept immersed so long that the skin is scalded and 
breaks and pulls from the body, leaving an ugly dark 



MARKET POULTRY 



159 



complexion. In scalding the fowls, the water should not 
be boiling when they are immersed, nor should boil- 
ing hot water be poured over them. They should be 
immersed in water not quite boiling, and as quickly 
as the feathers are thoroughly soaked they should be 
plucked gently from the body. Great care should be 
taken not to tear the flesh or skin. 



POULTRY PRICES 

A careful inspection of poultry prices over a period 
of years shows plainly that market poultry of good 
quality will sell at the highest prices from the middle 
of Dec. to the end of June. This is due, to a large 
extent, to the scarcity of farm-grown poultry in the 
market during these months. 

The condition in which poultry is offered for sale 
has an important influence on the price it will sell for. 
The relative selling price per pound live weight, plucked 
weight, and drawn weight of the same fowl is shown 
in the accompanying table. The plucked weight is the 
weight of the fowl with the feathers removed but with 
the head and feet left on. The drawn weight is the 
weight with the head, feet, and entrails removed and 
the fowl ready for cooking. It will be seen from this 
table that the selling price per pound, plucked weight, 
is about 331/^% more than the live weight, and that the 
price per pound, drawn weight, is about 100% greater 

MARKET VALUE' OF FOWLS AT DIFFERENT 
STAGES 



Live Weight 
Cents per Pound 


Plucked Weight 
Cents per Pound 


Drawn Weight 
Cents per Pound 


9 
10 
11 
12 


12 1^ 
13}^ 
14 H 
16 


20 
22 
23 H 



160 



BREEDING 



than for the live weight, and about 50% greater than 
for the plucked weight. This increase in the selling 
price is due, of course, to the removal of the waste 
parts and also to the labor entailed. The table furnishes 
a guide to decide the price to be fixed on the plucked 
or drawn weigh* of any grade of poultry. 



BREEDING 

The most important systems of breeding poultry for 
exhibition are line breeding, inbreeding, strain breeding, 
and cross-breeding. In any system of breeding, only 
the best breeding fowls obtainable should ever be used 
in the breeding pen. All fowls having defects should 
be promptly discarded, even if this leaves only two or 
three fowls in the breeding pen. Fully enough poor 
specimens come from the best matings, and so few 
good specimens come from matings in which either of 
the fowls are defective that time and money is wasted 
in such breeding. Only fowls having the proper size, 
shape, and color required for the 
variety can produce satisfactory 
offspring. The plan of mating 
fowls defective in one section 
with other fowls having excel- 
lent quality in the correspond- 
ing section usually results in 
the production of offspring hav- 
ing not more than medium 
quality in that section. 

Line Breeding.— Line breeding 
is a system of breeding from a 
limited number of original 
fowls, in which the fowls mated 
Silver Laced Wyandotte are not so closely related as in 
inbreeding; line breeding is really a modified form of in- 
breeding. Line breeding is often continued for a number 
of years without the introduction of new blood into the 




BREEDING 161 

flock, but in such cases great care is taken to breed 
from only the healthiest and most vigorous members 
of the flock. To maintain the vitality of the flock, 
only mature hens in their second or third year of laying 
are bred from. The success of any work in line breed- 
ing depends on the quality of the original fowls that 
are selected as . breeders, and the judgment with which 
the later breeders are selected, both for their quality 
and for their vitality. 

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding is a system of breeding in 
which the fowls mated are very closely related, being 
direct descendants of a very few original fowls. In- 
breeding differs materially from line breeding on account 
of the closeness of the relationship of the fowls. The 
best fowls produced each year are mated with breeders 
of the previous season and with each other, even to the 
extent of pairing brother with sister. Inbreeding is 
carried on chiefly with a view to improving color in a 
flock. Shape may be improved by this system of breed- 
ing, but this is not usually the case. Loss of size 
and deterioration of shape are undesirable features 
that usually attend inbreeding, and the maintenance 
of vitality is also a serious problem. The undesirable 
consequences of inbreeding can be avoided only by the 
most careful , attention to the details of breeding and 
to the selection of the breeding fowls. In most cases, 
the introduction of new blood into the breeding stock 
will be necessary. 

Strain Breeding.— Strain breeding is a system of breed- 
ing consisting in breeding fowls of one variety in line 
for a number of generations from a few original fowls; 
this breeding must also be conducted by one breeder, 
or his successors. A strain cannot be said to be estab- 
lished, even after three or four generations of breeding, 
unless the indications are plain that the original fowls 
selected for the foundation of the strain have been able 
to transmit their characters through the series of gen- 
erations, and also to cause the production of offspring of 
better quality than themselves. 



1 62 BREEDING 

From the preceding statements, it is evident that 
valuable strain can be produced only by the most careful 
selection of the foundation stock, and the most skilful 
breeding during the succeeding generations. Chance breed- 
ing cannot be relied on to produce satisfactory results. 
Cross-Breeding.— Cross-breeding is of two kinds: 
breeding together of fowls of different breeds; and 
breeding together of fowls of the same variety but 
which come from different localities or from different 
strains. Most commonly, cross-breeding is understood 
to be the mating together of fowls of different breeds, 
such, for instance, as a Plymouth Rock to a Wyandotte, 
or a Rhode Island Red to an 
Indian Game. This form of 
cross-breeding is often utilized 
in the production of broilers 
and roasters for market, the 
offspring from such crosses be- 
ing useless for breeding to- 
gether. The other form of 
cross-breeding, or of breeding 
for an out-cross, is usually prac- 
ticed in the breeding of poultry 
for exhibition, and for the pur- 
White Wyandotte p^ge of introducing new blood 
into a strain to improve vitality.. 

Methods of Mating.— Mating is the act of pairing a 
male and a female for the purpose of producing offspring. 
The two general methods of mating are single mating 
and double mating. Single mating consists in mating 
together a male and a female. 

When fowls are mated for the production, from the 
same pair, of both male and female offspring fit for 
exhibition, the process is called single mating. This is 
the method of mating commonly practiced in the mating 
of fowls of most varieties. This method of mating 
does not, however, produce the best results when the 
production of the most delicately marked fowls of the 
varieties most difficult to produce is desired. 







ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 163 

The mating of one pair of fowls for the purpose of 
producing male offspring fit for exhibition and another 
pair for the production of female offspring fit for exhi- 
bition is called double mating. This is practiced to a 
great extent in the production of Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, Brown Leghorns, partridge-colored fowls of all 
breeds, and to some extent in producing fowls that have 
penciling or lacing in their plumage. In double mating, 
great care is taken to see that the male and the female 
blood lines are kept separate, for if blood lines are 
crossed, color will be injured. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF 
POULTRY 



ENEMIES 

GENERAL REMARKS 

A parasite is any creature that secures the whole or 
part of its living from another. The parasites that 
attack poultry are insects. 

Methods of Infestation by Parasites.— Poultry become 
infested with parasites in many ways, and it is advis- 
able for the poultryman to keep a close watch to 
prevent such infestation. Some of the most common 
ways in which poultry becomes infested with parasites 
are: (1) by the introduction of an infested fowl into a 
flock; (2). by a hen infesting her chicks when they are 
incubated or brooded in a natural way; (3) by allowing 
infested fowls to roam at liberty; (4) by sparrows; (5) 
by the parasites crawling up on roosts that are not 
protected by safety appliances; (6) by the parasites 
dropping on the fowls from the ceilings of houses; (7) 
in nest boxes; (8) in dust baths. 

Effects of Parasites on Poultry.— Parasites cause more 
disease, ill health, and death among poultry than all 



164 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

other causes combined. The following are the principal 
specific effects resulting from parasites: (1) They re- 
duce the vitality of poultry; (2) they lessen egg pro- 
duction; (3) they deduct from the table qualities of fowls 
intended for market poultry; (4) they interfere with 
the proper performance of the natural duties of incuba- 
ting and brooding; (5) they cause the loss of parts 
of a fowl's body; (6) they infest poultry with other and 
additional varieties of parasites; (7) they infect poultry 
with fungous and bacterial diseases. 

Rapidity of Reproduction of Poultry Parasites.— The 
exact time required for poultry parasites to produce 
new generations cannot be stated definitely. Under 
favorable conditions, however, all kinds of poultry para- 
sites are very prolific and will increase to an alarming 
extent. Salmon states that the third generation from a 
single louse may number more than 120,000, and all of 
these may be produced within a period of 8 wk. Such 
a rapid increase being possible, the result of intro- 
ducing into a flock a fowl that is thoroughly infested 
with parasites can readily be surmised. Such a fowl is 
sure to do injury. 

Poultry parasites multiply particularly fast in damp, 
filthy, unsanitary places — surroundings that are unfavor- 
able to poultry even when not infested with parasites. 
Poultry parasites, however, will also develop rapidly 
in clean places if the air is allowed to remain hot 
and moist for any length of time. 

PARASITES ATTACKING DOMESTIC FOWLS 

The parasites that are found occasionally on domestic 
poultry are: Large chicken louse {Goniocotes abdomi- 
nalis); lesser chicken louse (Goniocotes hologaster). The 
Goniodes dissiinilis and the Goniocotes burnettii are rarely 
found on fowls. 

A louse that is sometimes found on fowls and which 
does considerable damage to the feathers when present 
in large numbers is the variable chicken louse, or 
feather louse (Lipeurus variabilis). 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 163 

The parasites that frequently infest domestic poultry 
are: Common hen louse Qlenopon pallidum); red mite, 
chicken mite, or red spider louse (Dermanyssus gallinae); 
itch, or scab, mite {Cnemidocoptes laezis, var. gaUinae), 
scaly leg mite {Cnemidocoptes nxutans). 

The parasites infesting turkeys, peafowls, and guinea 
fowls, in addition to the common hen louse and the red 
mite are Lipeunis polytrapezius, Goniodes stylifer, Gonio- 
cotes rectangulaius, Goniodes falcicornis, and similar ones. 

The parasites most commonly infesting water fowls 
are Trinoton luridum; Lipeurus squalidus, which is com- 
monly found on ducks; Trinoton lituratum; Ornithobius 
cygni, which is commonly found on geese; and Doco- 
phoriis cygni, which is commonly found on swans. 

The parasites m.ost commonly infesting pigeons are: 
Common pigeon louse (Goniocotes compar), Lipeurus tacu- 
lus, Goniodes damicornis, and two varieties of fleas. 

INSECTICIDES 

The substances that are used to kill insects are called 
insecticides. The three general classes of insecticides 
that are employed to kill the parasites that infest poul- 
try are powders, liquids, and fumes. The powders have 
to be dusted on the bodies of the parasites so that the 
fine particles of the material will be drawn into the 
breathing tubes of the insects. These tubes are thus 
clogged, and the insect dies of suffocation. The liquids 
kill because they are corrosive or because they get into 
the breathing tubes of the insects and suffocate. The 
fumes employed kill because they suffocate. 

All poultry parasites except mites can be kept under 
control, so far as their presence on the bodies of birds 
is concerned, by the use of insect powders. Insect 
powders, however, are not so efHcient for destroying 
parasites about poultry buildings as liquid and fume 
insecticides. Insecticides containing arsenic, such as 
Paris green, or other deadly poisons, should never be 
used about poultry buildings, as they are likely to poison 
both poultry and attendants. 
12 



166 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULiR^ 

Powder Insecticides.— To be suitable for killing the 

parasites of poultry that can be destroyed by powders, 
a powder must be very fine— at least as fine as ordinary 
road dust— perfectly dry, and not possess any adhesive 
qualities. Many kinds of powders are used for destroy- 
ing the parasites of poultry. They consist of substances 
that range from the most deadly poisons to the most 
harmless materials, and from ill-smelling powders to 
those that have no odor. No advantage is gained by 
using either poisonous or offensive smelling powders 
to kill the parasites of poultry, and they are dangerous 
both to the poultry and the person applying them. 

Some of the many kinds of insect powders are men- 
tioned and briefly described here because one or more of 
them can be found in any locality. The powders 
described do not include those that are specially pre- 
pared and sold in packages under a trade name. Any 
of the following powders may safely be used for dusting 
on poultry of all kinds. 

Aniseed powder is made from the seed of the anise 
plant, which grows in many parts of Europe. This 
powder is suitable for use about young chicks, poults, 
ducklings, and goslings. 

Pyrethrum powder is also commonly known as Persian 
or Dalmatian insect powder and as Buhach. It is usually 
sold by the pound in drug stores. This powder is com- 
monly made from the dry flowers of certain species of 
chrysanthemums which are grown in Persia, Ealmatia, 
and neighboring lands, and in California. When pure, 
this powder is one of the very best powders that can be 
used for dusting into the plumage of fowls, both old 
and young. 

Fine tobacco dust, which is a refuse from tobacco facto- 
ries, is an eflfective insecticide. It is suitable for 
dusting into nests, and will destroy body lice. Tobacco 
dust has the disadvantage that it will stick to the skin 
of the fowls. It also has a disagreeable odor, which 
is intensified by the heat and moisture of the bodies 
of the birds. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 167 

Stavesacre seed powder is made from the seed of a 
species of larkspur that grows in Southern Europe. It is 
a poisonous substance, and delphinin, a poisonous drug, is 
made from this seed. When fine, this powder is a good 
insecticide. 

Dry air-slaked lime makes an eflfective insect powder 
on account of its extreme fineness. 

Road dust will answer as an insecticide when used 
alone, provided it is very fine. It is also used as a 
base to mix with finely ground powders to make insecti- 
cides. To make sure that road dust is fine enough to 
be valuable as an insecticide, it should be passed 
through a very fine 
sieve, similar to that 
used by druggists for 
separating the coarser 
from the finer par- 
ticles in a powder. 

Compound insect pow- 
ders composed as fol- 
lows will be found 
effective: 

1. Fine road dust 
that has been care- 
fully sieved and mixed 

with an equal quan- —. _ 

e n it White Leghorns 

tity of Pyrethrum 

powder. This will be very effective provided the Pyreth- 
rum powder is pure and the road dust very fine. 

2. Equal parts of air-slaked lime, tobacco dust, and 
fine dust from coal ashes. If very fine and dry, this 
mixture will be suitable for dusting into nest boxes 
or on the bodies of fowls. It may, however, adhere to 
the bodies of the fowls and cause irritation. 

Liquid Insecticides. — Liquid insecticides are more ef- 
fective for application to the interior of poultry buildings 
than powder insecticides, for the reason that they can be 
sprayed into all the cracks and crevices. When 
thoroughly applied, a good liquid insecticide will rid 




168 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

a house of practically all the parasites that are in it. 
Some insects such as red mites can conveniently be 
exterminated only by the use of liquid insecticides. 
When liquid insecticides of any kind are used as either 
a spray or a paint, on poultry buildings, they should be 
allowed to soak into the wood and dry thoroughly be- 
fore the fowls are permitted to go inside of the building. 
Liquid insecticides of some kinds may also be applied 
to the bodies of poultry. 

Some liquid insecticides are applied by themselves 
without dilution or combination with any other material; 
in the form of an emulsion with other liquids; or with 
other materials in solution in them. A description of 
the principal liquid insecticides in use at the present 
time follows: 

Creosote is widely used as an insecticide. It is also 
known in some localities as crude carbolic acid and as 
creosote stain. Creosoje is a coal-tar product. It is* not 
an expensive material and is usually sold in paint 
stores. In large quantities it can be purchased at from 
40c. to 50c. per gal., and in small quantities at from 80c. 
to $1 per gal. Creosote is used for shingle stains and 
as a wood preservative for many other kinds of wood- 
work. If it is desired to color the inside or outside 
of the houses to which creosote is to be applied, dry 
paint can be added to it. Creosote is the best liquid 
insecticide for spraying on the interior of poultry houses. 
Two or three applications of this material will rid any 
building or coop of insect vermin of all kinds. 

Creosote bought at different times and in different 
places will not always be of the same viscosity or 
thickness. When very thick it may need to be diluted 
in the proportion of 1 part of creosote to from 3 to 4 
parts of kerosene oil, in order to get it in the proper 
condition for spraying. Thinner samples of creosote may 
need to be diluted with only 2 parts of kerosene oil to 
make it suitable for spraying. For painting roost poles 
and nest boxes, ihe thinner kind of creosote is commonly 
used without any dilution; the thicker kind is usually 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 169 

diluted with 2 parts of kerosene oil when used for this 
purpose. Roost poles may also be satisfactorily painted 
with a wash made up of equal parts of creosote and 
hot water. When roost poles and nest boxes are treated 
with this mixture, they should be allowed to dry in 
the sun before being put back in the house; when the 
roost poles are put back in the house their ends should 
be painted with a coat of the undiluted thick creosote. A 
mixture of 2J4 gal. of creosote, 2% gal. of water, and 1 lb. 
of washing soda will also make an effective wash for 
nests, roosts, and brood coops. If this is used hot and 
applied in a spray, its effectiveness will be increased. 

After a house has been thoroughly freed of parasites, 
the roost poles and the interior of the nest boxes should 
be coated with one of the above mixtures of creosote 
once a week for a month, and occasionally thereafter. 
This work should always be done before noon so that 
the creosote will have time to dry before night. 

Crude petroleum is an inflammable oily liquid from 
which a number of other oils that are used for com- 
mercial purposes are obtained by processes of refining. 
It is also called coal oil, earth oil, mineral oil, natural 
oil, rock oil, and Seneca oil. Crude petroleum is a dark 
blown to greenish liquid. 

Kerosene is an inflammable oil distilled from crude 
petroleum or any mineral hydrocarbon. Kerosene is 
suitable for spraying the interior of poultry houses, but 
is not well suited for applying to the bodies of fowls. 
Inflamed eyes, blisters, and sore spots on the skin 
will result when kerosone is applied direct. It is abso- 
lutsly unfit to use on the bodies of young chicks. 

Bensine is a colorless, inflammable, and volatile liquid 
obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. While 
it is often used as an insecticide, it is dangerous to 
handle because of its inflammability. 

Gasoline is also a colorless, volatile, and inflammable 
liquid obtained from the distillation of crude petroleum. 
It is dangerous to handle for the same reason that 
benzine is dangerous. 



170 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY , 

Turpentine is a product of such trees as the pine and I 
other similar trees. It is much used in the making of 
paints and varnishes and also in medicine. It is in- 
flammable and will irritate the skin. 

Creoline, a liquid manufactured especially for use as 
an insecticide, is efifective in killing the insect enemies 
of poultry. Creoline may be used in the interior of 
poultry houses diluted in the proportion of 3 fluid oz. 
of creoline to 1 gal. of water. 

Carbolic acid is largely used in the destruction of 
poultry parasites. A solution made of V/2 fluid oz. of 
carbolic acid to 1 gal. of water is strong enough for 
this purpose. Carbolic acid is sometimes added to white- 
wash so that sanitary conditions can be improved at 
the same time that an insecticide is applied. When 
used in this way, however, carbolic acid does not have 
as effective insecticidal properties as when it is used 
without whitewash. 

Milk emulsion is usually first made up in a concen- 
trated or stock solution, or cream solution as it is 
sometimes called, and then diluted just before it is 
applied. To make the stock solution, add 2 gal. of 
kerosene to 1 gal. of milk and churn or mix thoroughly 
with a force pump or other agitator. This stock solution 
should be diluted in the proportion of 1 gal. of the stock 
solution to 4 gal. of warm water. Crude petroleum, 
benzine, gasoline., or turpentine may be substituted for 
kerosene in this formula. Kerosene, however, can usu- 
ally be purchased cheaper than the other liquids except 
crude petroleum. 

Soap emulsion is also usually first made up in a stock 
solution and then diluted just before it is to be applied. 
To make a stock solution of soap emulsion, dissolve 1 lb. 
of hard soap in 1 gal. of hot water; when the soap has 
all dissolved and while the solution is hot, add 2 gal. 
of kerosene; mix thoroughly with a force pump or an 
agitator of some kind. When to be used for spraying 
the interior of poultry houses, this stock solution should 
be diluted in the proportion of 1 gal. of the stock solution 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 171 

to 4 gal. of water. Crude petroleum, benzine, gasoline, 
or turpentine may be substituted for kerosene in this 
formula also. 

Liquid lice killer is a name frequently applied to an 
insecticide made from kerosene oil and powdered naph- 
thalene flakes or balls, in the proportion of 2 lb. of 
naphthalene to 1 gal. of kerosene. The can containing 
this solution should be covered so that the liquid will 
not leak out of it, and the solution should be agitated 
frequently by shaking. The solution should be allowed 
to remain in this can about a week, when it should be 
poured into another receptacle, so that another batch 
can be mixed if necessary. If 2 fluid oz. of creoline or 
of creosote are added to the clear solution, the effective- 
ness of the solution will be improved. The cans con- 
taining this solution should be kept in a temperature 
that never goes below 40° F. or the naphthalene will 
go out of solution and appear in flakes. The solution 
should be kept for about 24 hr. in a warm place before 
it is used, so that it will be at about 70° to 80° F. 
when it is applied. This solution should never be kept 
close to a fire, nor should any attempt be made to heat 
it over or near a fire, as it is inflammable. This liquid 
lice killer may be used for either painting or spraying 
the interior of poultry houses and brood coops. 

Compound liquid insecticides made up according to the 
following formulas may be used with safety on the 
bodies of young chicks: 1 oz. of oil of sassafras to 2 or 
3 oz. of sweet oil; 1 oz. of oil of aniseed to 3 oz. of sweet 
oil. 

Lard can also be rubbed on the heads and throats of 
young chicks for use as an insecticide. 

Whitewash is not effective as an insecticide unless it 
is mixed with carbolic acid in the proportion of V/2 
fluid oz. of carbolic acid to 1 gal. of whitewash. Even 
when containing carbolic acid, however, it cannot be 
depended on to kill mites. If applied hot, the effective- 
ness of this mixture will be increased. Whitewash 
applied by itself will not kill insects unless it happens 



172 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

to so completely cover them that the creatures will 
drown in it. Whitewash can be recommended to help 
maintain sanitary conditions about a poultry house, 
but unfortunately when it is used it often gives the 
poultryman a false sense of security against parasites 
and frequently causes him to neglect the proper measures 
to exterminate the insect enemies of his poultry. 

Fume Insecticides.— Fume insecticides are produced by 
burning various substances. Fumes that are extremely 
poisonous should not be used for killing poultry para- 
sites, as there is no necessity for their use, and persons, 
animals, and the poultry may be accidentally exposed 
to them. The following can be recommended as effective 
on parasites, and not necessarily fatal to other creatures 
if inhaled in small quantities, though they will prove 
fatal to any person, animal, or bird if inhaled in suf- 
ficient quantities: 

Sulphur fumes can be produced by burning sulphur. 
Either lump sulphur, which is frequently called brim- 
stone, sulphur candles, or powdered sulphur can be used 
for this purpose. The powdered sulphur will produce 
fumes more rapidly than the lump sulphur. The sulphur 
should be placed in an iron pot or pan to avoid fire 
and should be moistened with some inflammable liquid to 
make it burn more freely. 

Tobacco fumes may be produced by burning any kind 
of tobacco. Such fumes are usually produced by burning 
the waste leaves or stems of the tobacco plant, as these 
can be purchased cheaply. The tobacco stems or leaves 
should be placed in an iron receptacle of some kind 
to avoid the danger from fire and should also be moist- 
ened with some inflammable liquid to make them burn 
quickly. 

Creosote fumes or liquid lice-killer fumes are sometimes 
used for killing the parasites on a few fowls confined in 
a small space. This treatment is difficult to perform and 
dangerous to use. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 173 



INSTRUMENTS FOR APPLYING INSECTICIDES 
Powder Guns. — Insect powders can be applied by hand, 

but they are more effectively applied by the use of 

powder guns. A small pow- 
der gun is shown in Fig. 1. 

This will answer when only 

a few fowls are to be 

dusted, but where there are 

a large number of fov/ls to 

dust, a larger powder gun 

will be required. A bellows 

powder gun is shown in Fig. 





Fig. 2 



possible to dust a large number of fowls in a short 
time. This can be used at night by going about among the 
fowls and quietly inserting the point of the gun among 
the feathers of the fowls while on the roost, and in this 
way dust them thoroughly. 

Sprayers. — Liquid insecticides can be most effectively 
and economically applied in spray form. Where there 
is only a small surface to go over, a small hand-spraying 
outfit similar to that shown in Fig. 3 will answer. 

Where a large amount 
of surface has to be 
covered, a spraying 
outfit like that shown 
in Fig. 4 will be 
found more conve- 
nient. There are many 
makes of these com- 
pressed-air sprayers on the market. Those with gal- 
vanized-iron receptacles for the liquid will answer for 




174 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

spraying insecticides but will not prove satisfactory for 
spraying Bordeaux mixture on plants. By using spray 
pumps to apply insecticides, a large quantity of liquid 
is saved as compared with applying them by means 
of a brush, and the insecticide is 
also applied more effectively. 
When applied in a fine spray, it 
penetrates into the cracks and 
crevices in the building and 
forms an even covering over the 
flat surfaces. 




KILLING OF PARASITES 

A constant watch must be kept 
for parasites, because from the 
moment chicks come from the 
shell they are menaced by insect 
PiQ 4 vermin. The most practical way 

of meeting the problem is con- 
tinually to practice preventive measures. 

If poultry parasites are allowed to become numerous 
they will sap the vitality of the fowls, and although the 
parasites themselves may be gotten rid of, it will be 
impossible to restore the physical condition of the fowls. 
For application to poultry houses, liquid and fume in- 
secticides are most effective, but usually liquid insecti- 
cides are the more convenient to apply. Powder 
insecticides are ordinarily effective on the bodies of 
fowls, but it must be borne in mind that they will not 
kill all classes of parasites. 

Houses that are maintained in a cleanly condition, 
well lighted with sunlight, and free from dampness will 
never be badly infested with parasites, if they are given 
regular sprayings with some good liquid insecticide. 
Nothing can take the place of sanitary conditions as a 
preventive measure, but sanitary conditions combined 
with regular spraying is most effective. 

Prevention of Infestation by Fowls From Other Flocks. 
To avoid the chance of carrying parasites into a house 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 175 

or to a flock that is free from parasites, all fowls brought 
in from other flocks should be kept in a sort of quaran- 
tine by themselves and specially treated for a number 
of days. The place of quarantine should be a small 
coop or cage that is free from parasites. For a period 
of about 10 da. some effective powder insecticide 
should be frequently dusted into the feathers of Such 
fowls. To do this, the fowl should be held in one hand 
by the shanks, with the head hanging down, and the 
insect powder should be worked into the feathers of 
every part of the body and down on to the skin with the 
fingers of the other hand. In especially bad cases, a 
thorough washing should follow this dusting. 

Method of Ridding a Poultry House of Parasites.—The 
thorough cleaning of a poultry house that has become 
badly infested with parasites is a difficult problem and 
drastic measures are required. If the building is a 
cheap affair, like a small coop, it is often best to burn 
it, but burning would be too expensive in the case of 
a large poultry house. Before attempting to clean a 
poultry house, all the fowls should be removed to other 
quarters, dusted with insect powder and kept by them- 
selves until the house cleaning is completed. To get a 
badly infested poultry house in good sanitary condition 
and free from parasites will require several days. The 
following treatment will be found effective, but in 
exceptionally bad cases a repetition of the treatment 
may be necessary. 

1. The house should be thoroughly fumigated. After 
removing the poultry, stop up every crack and crevice, 
so that the fumes will not escape. A number of sub- 
stances can be used for fumigation, but sulphur and 
tobacco are the ones that can be recommended. If 
either of these are used they should be burned in some 
metallic receptacle such as an iron pot or kettle, to 
avoid fire. If these substances are moistened with 
some inflammable material they will burn more freely. 
Whatever material is burned to produce the fumes, 
enough of it should be used so that the interior of the 



176 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

building will be filled with enough fumes to darken 
it. The building should be kept tightly closed for 24 hr. 

2. The interior of the house should be dusted with 
dry air-slaked lime. To do this a person should take 
a bucket, bag, or pailful of the fine lime and start at 
the end of the house farthest from the door, and walk 
slowly backwards toward the door, scattering the lime 
with the right hand in the same way that seed is sown. 
The lime should be thrown against the ceiling, side 
walls, nest boxes, roosting places, etc. The air should 
be filled with a cloud of lime dust. This dust will 
settle gradually into every crack and crevice of the 
house. While the lime dust is being scattered, the house 
should be closed as tightly as possible. About a half 
bushel of lime dust will answer for a poultry house 20 
ft. wide and 40 to 50 ft. long. A thin cloth that the 
operator can see through should be tied over the eyes, 
nose, and mouth to prevent the lime dust from getting 
into them. Any parasites that may have escaped the 
fumes of the sulphur or tobacco will more than likely 
be killed by the lime dust. The house should be 
closed again for 24 hr. to allow the lime dust to settle 
thoroughly. 

3. The house should then be brushed or swept clean. 
The ceiling, walls, floor, and every appliance and fixture 
inside the house should be carefully brushed. No dust 
or dirt should be left. The straw from the nest boxes, 
and the straw and dirt from the floor should be taken 
outside, saturated with kerosene, and burned. After 
all that will burn has been burned, the rest should be 
buried deep in the ground. 

4. The house should be thoroughly sprayed both 
inside and out with one of the liquid insecticides 
described. Creosote and liquid lice killer are to be 
preferred, in the order named. The liquid insecticide 
applied at this time should be allowed to dry thoroughly. 

5. A second application of the liquid insecticide 
should be made to the interior of the house, the nest 
boxes, and roosting poles before the fowls are allowed 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 177 

to return. This application should be made on the 
morning of the day the fowls are to be returned to 
the house; after the liquid has dried sufficiently, fresh 
straw should be placed in the nest boxes. 

6. The fowls should be thoroughly dusted with insect 
powder immediately before they are allowed to return 
to the house. They should be returned to the house at 
dusk with the powder in their feathers so that they can 
roost the first night without shaking out the powder. 

7. Sanitary conditions must be maintained continually 
in the house and a strict watch must be kept for the 
appearance of parasites, both on the fowls and about 
the house. If this is not done the house is likely to be 
reinfested with parasites. If parasites appear the house 
should be thoroughly cleaned and sprayed again. To 
maintain cleanliness the interior of the buildings, the 
side walls, ceilings, roosting places, nest boxes, etc. 
should be brushed frequently with a stiff broom, and 
all filth should be systematically removed from the floor 
before it has a chance to accumulate in any quantity. 

ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY 

Nearly all flesh-eating animals attack poultry when the 
occasion offers. The animals that do the most harm to 
the average poultry flock are wildcats, raccoons, opos- 
sums, skunks, weasels, minks, rats, dogs, and cats. It 
is said that the tiger of India and the smaller mem- 
bers of the feline family hunt the peafowl and the 
pheasant. Where foxes are found in the neighborhood 
they will also attack poultry. The great proportion of 
animals destructive to poultry hunt by night, and hence 
if all openings in the poultry houses are closed with 
wire netting, practically all of the animals most likely 
to attack would be excluded. 

For the capture or destruction of animals destructive to 
poultry the usual spring and box traps are used. 



178 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 



on I 



BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY 

It is difficult to determine just which birds are 
structive to poultry, because many birds that live 
rodents, such as field mice, rats, etc., will attack poultry 
when short of other food. As a general rule, however, 
birds are not very destructive to poultry, because even 
the birds that attack domestic fowls the most frequently 
come far from being the worst enemies of poultry. One 
rat, for instance, will often destroy more chicks in 
a single night than a pair of hawks will carry off in a 
month, and the insect enemies of poultry do more dam- 
age than all other agencies combined. 

Falcons, hawks, and owls are the principal birds of 
prey that attack poultry and may be separated into 
four classes, grading from the least destructive to the 
most destructive as follows: 

The hawks and owls least destructive to poultry are: 

1. The l?rge rough-legged hawk, the squirrel hawk, 
and the white-tailed, Mississippi, swallow-tailed, and 
English kites. These birds will not disturb or hunt for 
poultry so long as they can hnd a satisfactory supply 
of other food to supply their wants. They are generally 
considered as being entirely beneficial to mankind. 

2. According to Dr. A. K. Fisher the majority of hawks 
and owls are usually beneficial to mankind, but will often 
kill poultry when the occasion offers. He names the fol- 
lowing as belonging to this class: Marsh hawk, Harris's 
hawk, red-tailed hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed 
hawk, red-shouldered hawk. Swainson's hawk, short- 
winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, 
Mexican goshawk, sparrow hawk, barn owl, long-eared 
and short-eared owls, great gray owl, western owl, Rich- 
ardson's owl, screech owl, snowy owl, hawk owl, and 
other smaller species. 

3. Fisher also classes the following birds as doing 
about as much good by destroying other creatures as they 
do harm by destroying poultry: Golden eagle, bald 
eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson's hawk, falcons, and the 
great horned owl. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 179 

4. Birds that are very destructive to poultry and not 
of much benefit through destroying other creatures are: 
Gray falcon, duck hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's 
hawk, and goshawk. 

The birds that are classed as least destructive to 
poultry subsist almost entirely on rodents that destroy 
field crops and trees, but notwithstanding the fact that 
they prefer this kind of food they cannot be trusted 
where young chicks are being raised. Under starv- 
ing conditions all of 
these birds will kill 
the young of chick- 
ens, turkeys, and wa- 
ter fowls. The spar- 
row hawk, the small- 
est and most beauti- 
ful of all the above 
birds, lives almost 
entirely on insects 
and field mice, but 
will, if tempted by 
their presence, kill 
young chicks. 

In addition . to the 
above birds, ravens, 
blackbirds, and 
crows will destroy White Minorca 

young poultry. It is not unusual for the raven and the 
crow to fly away with chicks that are 2 or 3 wk. old. 
This, however, will occur only where the poultry have 
the range of the farm near the nesting places of these 
birds. 

Well-built houses are a good protection against birds 
of prey. Scarecrows and hawk traps are also sometimes 
effective. The presence of a few guinea fowls and a 
well-trained dog will often keep a fair-sized farm free 
from birds of prey. Neither guinea fowls nor dogs will 
do any harm to birds of prey, but the guinea fowls will 
make a loud outcry whenever birds of prey appear, and 




180 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

the dog that is trained for the purpose will bark at the 
noise and will chase the birds of prey away. 



DISEASES 

GENERAL REMARKS 

A disease is any derangement of a living organism, but 
the term ailment is usually applied to slight disorders. 
Though there are many diseases of poultry, and some 
serious ones, comparatively few fowls are diseased, when 
the large numbers of fowls in the country are considered, 
and poultry that is kept in sanitary quarters and has 
proper food is the least likely to become diseased. 
Hence, the importance of preventive measures. 

Poultry in poor health will exhibit a dull, sluggish, 
and listless appearance, which is the strongest evidence 
of a lack of vitality, and will go to roost early and 
remain there in the morning until long after the other 
fowls are out looking for food. When they do leave 
the roosts they will walk about as if they were not 
strong enough to drag their legs and feet after them. 
Fowls in poor health will have a bloodless appearance, 
will have an absence of healthy brightness in their 
eyes, faces, combs, and wattles, and will show a general 
lack of condition, which is always accompanied by a 
lack of appetite and a failure to assimilate properly the 
food they eat. Hens in poor health will lay but few 
eggs. Whenever fowls have had their vitality reduced 
so that they exhibit the symptoms described they will be 
susceptible to the attacks of all kinds of diseases. 

There are few symptoms that are of practical value 
in the diagnosis of the diseases of poultry, for the reason 
that many symptoms are common to several different 
diseases. A few general symptoms are, however, of 
value. Fowls that are diseased become listless; they are 
inclined to stay apart from other fowls, and will stand 
in out-of-the-way places or beside a fence sunning 
themselves, their heads hanging and their feathers 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 181 

ruffled. It is natural for fowls to sun themselves, but 
there is a marked difference between the healthy fowl 
basking in the sun for recreation and the sick fowl 
standing there in the hope of warming its body. Dis- 
ease in poultry is always accompanied by a loss of appe- 
tite and generally by frequent voidance of the bowels. 

The temperature of normal fowls ranges from 106° to 
107.5° F., but the temperature of fowls is rarely taken, 
chilliness being usually accepted as an indication of 
fever. The heart beat of fowls is quite rapid, varying 
from 110 to 140 per minute. The rapidity, however, is not 
of so much importance as the regularity. The normal 
breathing rate of fowls is from SO to 60 respirations per 
minute. When the respiratory organs are diseased, the 
respirations are quickened. The regularity or irregular- 
ity of the heart beat or of respiration will be plainly 
heard if the ear is placed against the backbone or the 
ribs. 

Preventive measures are the best treatment for poultry 
troubles. The fowls should be handled in such a way 
that they will contract as few diseases as possible, and 
the slightest ailment should be treated before it has a 
chance to gain headway. This requires constant attention, 
but this is the only way to success. 

None but very simple treatment is ordinarily neces- 
sary for poultry, and any ailment that will not yield 
readily to simple treatment is usually so serious that 
even if a fowl is enabled to recover from it, the results 
will not be satisfactory, for the vitality of the fowl 
will be seriously impaired. Hence, the practical poultry- 
man, except in the case of particularly valuable fowls, 
usually kills any ailing fowls that do not recover quickly 
from simple treatment. 

Medicine is most satisfactorily administered to a 
flock of fowls by being fed mixed in a warm or slightly 
warm mash. Pills are usually the most convenient 
form in which to administer medicine to individual 
fowls. When liquids are poured down a fowl's throat 
care should be taken to avoid strangulation. 
1.^ 



182 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT 

There are a few fundamental principles of treatment 
that it would be well for every poultryman to have 
continually in his mind. Morse's maxims cover this 
ground so well that they are given here: 

"Clean out by means of Epsom salts, administered in 
an evening mash, estimating one-third of a teaspoonful 
to each adult bird. When disease is raging this may be 
practiced with the sick two or three times a week until 
there is an abatement of the outbreak. Even the well 
birds should receive one such dose at the beginning 
of an outbreak of disease. After disease has swept 
through a flock, until one is certain that it has been 
entirely eradicated, it is well to give the flock at 
least one dose monthly during the cooler weather and 
twice a month during the heated term. 

"Clean up the poultry houses by sprinkling powdered, 
air-slaked lime over the runs, dropping-boards, and 
floors. This should be practiced at the time of giving 
the salts, as the lime will destroy the parasites that 
are deposited in the droppings. 

"Clean the water supply by adding to the drinking 
water enough permanganate of potash to turn the water 
a claret red; that would ordinarily be as much as you 
can spread on a silver 10c. piece to the gallon of 
water. Instead of this, iron sulphate may be added in 
the proportion of 10 gr. to 1 gal. of water. Or, 
instead of either, 1 teaspoonful of strong carbolic acid 
(not crude) may be added to 1 gal. of water. This should 
be practiced constantly during the prevalence of disease. 
Healthy fowls not threatened with disease do not need it. 

"Clean eggs by dipping them in 90% alcohol, just 
before placing them in the incubator. Instead of the 
alcdhol, a 3% solution of some good coal-tar disin- 
fectant may be used, with this exception, that instead of 
dipping, as in the use of alcohol, they should be wiped 
with the coal-tar disinfectant. The purpose of this rule 
is to remove from the shell of the egg the various 



t; ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 183 

contaminating microbes that are deposited on the shell 
in its passage through the cloaca. 

"By all means furnish your poultry with nothing but 
clean food. Moldy food is certain to produce disease 
and death. However, circumstances sometimes arise in 
which it appears impossible to avoid the use of food 
that has been exposed to the conditions favorable to the 
production of mold. In such circumstances, destroy the 
mold by the application of strong heat. Do not think 
that this suggestion is a happy thought to permit you 
to lessen your expenses by buying seconds, thirds, etc. 
in the feed line. If you practice it, it will be to your 
certain loss. An emergency suggestion is never a rule 
to be regularly carried out. 

"Clean incubators and brooders by thoroughly scrub- 
bing them with hot water and common soap. This 
practice, alone, has helped to cut down the cases of 
white diarrhea and brooder pneumonia. Having once used 
the incubators and brooders, remember that danger, dis- 
ease, and death lurk in them until they are disinfected. 

"Breed from the youngest females .consistent with the 
needs of good breeding. Investigators have recently 
shown that there are fewer cases of egg infection by 
bacteria in the eggs that come from virgin pullets. A 
study of the anatomy of fowls and the physiology of 
fertilization makes plain at once how all kinds of 
bacteria may be introduced into the egg tube by the 
male bird in the act of copulation. Once in the egg 
tube it is not difficult for the bacteria to eventually 
reach the ovary and thus we may have infection of eggs 
in the ovary and in the upper part of the egg tube." 

SIMPLE REMEDIES FOR POULTRY 

Every poultryman should have at hand a few simple 
remedies that may be safely used in the treatment of 
poultry diseases and ailments. Many of the common 
remedies kept in the home for use with children will 
be valuable for poultry. The following materials are 
all convenient for the poultryman to have on hand: 



184 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

Epsom salts, called also bitter salt, is a white, hydrated, 
crystalline salt known chemically as magnesium sulphate. 
It is used as a purgative in doses of Ys teaspoonful to 
each fowl. 

Castor oil is a thick yellowish-white oil expressed from 
the castor bean. It is used as a purgative. 

Olive oil, called also sweet oil, is an oil expressed from 
the ripe fruit of the olive. It serves the purpose of butter 
in some countries, but in most parts of the civilized 
world is used chiefly in salad dressings. Olive oil is 
the most nearly perfect laxative for use with poultry, 
as it is both healing and nutritious, thus possessing an 
advantage over castor oil. A tablespoonful of olive oil 
can be safely administered. 

Camphor is a gumlike, translucent, crystalline com- 
pound with a penetrating, fragrant odor; it is distilled 
from the wood and bark of the camphor tree. It may 
be used as a medicine for poultry to allay irritation, 
as in colds and in cases of slight diarrhea. 

Copper sulphate, called also bluestone, is a blue crystal- 
line substance that is used as an astringent and stimu- 
lant, but not more than from H to Ya. gr. should be 
administered more than once a day to any fowl. 

Iron sulphate, called also copperas, is a green, crystal- 
line substance that is used for the same purpose as 
copper sulphate and can be administered in doses of 
H to Yz gr. 

Douglas mixture is used as a tonic for both poultry and 
pigeons, and is made by mixing Y2 lb. of iron sulphate 
with 1 oz. of sulphuric acid dissolved in 2 gal. of water. 
This may be used in the drinking water— 2 tablespoon- 
fuls of the mixture to each pint of water. 

Table salt is sparingly used to season mash foods 
for poultry. A large quantity of salt will kill poultry, 
and it is better to give them none than too much. Less 
salt should be used to season food for poultry than is 
needed for human beings. 

Rhinitis tablets, half strength, are an excellent remedy 
for a cold in its early stages. They are given to 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 185 

poultry that have slight colds — two tablets two or three 
times a day for from 1 to 3 da. 

Homeopathic remedies are used by many poultrymen for 
their poultry with satisfactory results. Such remedies 
should be given to poultry in quantities about as 
recommended for children. 

Healing powders for applying to sores of any kind are 
useful to have on a poultry establishment. Equal parts 
of burnt alum and zinc oxide; or zinc oxide, powdered 
magnesia, and Venetian red are effective for this pur- 
pose. Burnt alum and the mixture of burnt alum and 
zinc oxide are excellent for use on any kind of sores. 
The zinc oxide and the powdered magnesia are very 
healing and painless. The Venetian red is slightly 
caustic and may be used where a light cauterization is 
needed. 

Hydrogen peroxide, a clear solution that looks like 
water, is useful for cleansing and disinfecting ulcers 
or other sores on poultry. 

Paraffin oil is a mineral oil derived from petroleum. 
It may be used for relief in cases of scaly leg and 
bumblefoot and may be applied to injuries of the shank, 
but should not be applied to the skin of the body or to 
the feathers. 

Ointments are sometimes needed for irritations of the 
skin. Fresh zinc-oxide ointment is useful for this pur- 
pose, but when it becomes rancid it is unfit for use. An 
ointment made of equal parts of glycerine and rose 
water mixed in a mortar with zinc oxide until the 
whole assumes a thick mass, may also be used. 

Iodine, turpentine, creoline, senoleum, and tincture of 
iron are effective for destroying warts on poultry. 

Tonics for preventing illness should never be given to 
poultry. Fowls in good health do much better without 
them. A tonic for young or half-grown chicks that have 
been weakened from any cause may be given in pill 
form according to the following formula: 2 dr. of 
iron citrate and 30 gr. of quinine sulphate, mixed 
into a mass with sirup of gum arabic so as to make 



186 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

enough for 60 pills. One of these pills may be given 
night and morning for 3 da. 

AILMENTS AND TREATMENT 
Colds, Canker, Catarrh, and Roup.— The most common 
ailments of fowls are colds, canker, catarrh, and roup. 
All of these troubles are likely to come from exposure 
to damp or cold at seasons of the year when the tem- 
perature rises and falls quickly. Fowls are just as 
likely to take a cold in July and Aug. as in midwin- 
ter; they are especially likely to take cold on rainy 
days in the summer when they go to roost with wet 
plumage. 

As a matter of fact, colds, canker, catarrh, and roup 
are often merely stages of the same disease. A cold 
may begin by a slight discharge from the nostrils, 
accompanied, perhaps, by watering of the eyes. Canker 
and catarrh, which are inflammations of the mucous mem- 
brane, are mild forms of diphtheria in which patches may 
grow on the inside of the throat and on the tongue or at 
the opening of the windpipe. These conditions follow 
one another quickly, unless prompt attention is given 
to the first symptoms of cold. The earlier forms of the 
disease do not seem to be contagious, but roup is 
contagious. 

So many remedies are used in the treatment of these 
diseases that it is difficult to choose between them. The 
best remedy of all, perhaps, is permanganate of potash 
administered in the drinking water. The bathing of 
the head, face, throat, and nostrils with warm water 
in which some antiseptic solution is mixed, and the 
maintenance of perfect cleanliness in their surroundings 
is also advisable. The giving of internal remedies is 
very unsatisfactory, and any attempt to cure fowls 
afflicted with roup by any such means is almost useless. 
Fowls badly affected with roup should be promptly 
killed, their bodies buried, and the premises cleaned 
and disinfected with creosote or some other similar 
material. Permanganate of potash should be given to 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 187 

the rest of the flock in their drinking water. A saturated 
solution may be made by placing 1 oz. of the crystals 
of permanganate of potash in a 2-oz. bottle of water. 
One teaspoonful of this saturated solution will be 
sufficient for 1 gal. of drinking water. A warm mash 
with a little ginger and red pepper added as a tonic 
may also be given with advantage. 

Gapes. — Gapes is a disease caused by parasites or gape 
worms growing and adhering to the inner lining of the 
windpipe. This causes the chicks to gasp for breath; 
they open their mouths wide and sneeze or cough in an 
effort to throw the parasite out of the windpipe. 

Among the remedies used for this is the feeding of 
asafetida, garlic, or onion tops in soft food. A tea- 
spoonful of powdered asafetida to a pint of food will be 
plenty of this. Garlic and onion tops as much as they 
will eat will not injure them. Another means of relief 
is to introduce a feather down the throat and into the 
windpipe, the point of the feather being dipped in sweet 
oil before being introduced to the windpipe. 

Bronchitis.— Bronchitis is a disease of the lining of 
the air tubes. Fowls that take cold are apt to have 
irritation of the bronchial tubes. When this becomes 
aggravated a rattling in the throat is apparent. Treat- 
ment is difficult. One drop of tincture of aconite may 
be given every hour until four or five doses have been 
administered. The fowl should be fed on warm bread 
and milk or a warm mash. When the rattling in the 
throat becomes aggravated there is but little chance for 
relief. The use of pills made of iron, quinine, and 
strychnine of the same strength that would be given to 
a lO-yr.-old child may be administered one each 
morning and evening. 

Diseases of the Intestines.— Diseases of the intestines 
are caused by improper feeding, poorly kept or un- 
sanitary houses, yards, and buildings, or long-continued 
exposure to damp and cold. These intestinal irritations 
cause diarrhea, dysentery, and like ailments, which 
may bring about what is known as going light. The 



188 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

only safety against such ailments is perfect cleanliness, 
protection from cold and damp, and proper feeding. 

Fowls that are attacked with looseness of the bowels 
or diarrhea may be treated by separating them from 
the rest of the flock, cutting off their supply of green 
food, and giving them water to drink in which a tea- 
spoonful of tincture of iron has been mixed in each 
quart of water, feeding them warm mash composed of 
either stale bread, ground oats, and wheat bran equal 
parts, or of ground oats, wheat middlings, and wheat 
bran equal parts, either to be moistened with hot milk 
or hot water and seasoned with a teaspoonful of red 
pepper to each quart of mash. 

Of recent years the scourge of white diarrhea has 
spread throughout the world. Some persons claim that 
nearly one-half of all the little chicks hatched are lost 
through this ailment. Whether or not so large a per- 
centage of all chicks hatched die from this disease, it 
is a fact that entirely too many die in this way and 
that nearly all of the little chicks that die of looseness 
of the bowels have white diarrhea. The symptoms of 
white diarrhea are unmistakable. It usually attacks 
little chicks within the first week after they come from 
the shell. They shiver, hang down their wings, close 
their eyes, and stand about and peep in a most painful 
manner, and the discharges from their bowels is like 
a mixture of milk and lime. Other kinds of diarrhea 
and looseness of the bowels may be caused by cold, 
exposure to damp, or eating food that ferments in the 
"oowels. Diarrhea from these causes does not make 
little chicks nearly so sick as does white diarrhea. 

The cure for all these troubles is care and manage- 
ment. If little .chicks are exposed to too much heat 
under the brooder or are chilled at night under the 
brooder, if they run out in the damp and wet and take 
cold, or if any of them eat bad food they are almost 
certain to be afflicted with looseness of the bowels. This 
can be cured or prevented by avoiding the troubles that 
cause the ailment and by a system of perfect sanitation 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 189 

and cleanliness and the feeding of proper kinds of food. 
Looseness of the bowels of this kind can usually be 
cured by feeding equal parts of bread crumbs and rice 
boiled in milk. If there is sufficient moisture in the 
rice to moisten the bread, no more moisture is needed. 
If a little more moisture is needed use hot milk. This 
treatment can be safely given to all little chicks troubled 
with looseness of the bowels. It will not hurt the 
chicks with white diarrhea. There is, however, no 
known cure for little chicks that are afflicted with white 
diarrhea. 

Diseases of the Legs and Feet. — Leg weakness, rheuma- 
tism, and gout are troubles that cause lameness in fowls. 
Lameness may also come from corns or bumblefoot. 
Rheumatism and gout are often called leg weakness, 
although the leg weakness may be due to any one of a 
number of causes, as for instance too high a temperature 
in the brooder, to the chicks being kept too long on 
board floors, to insufficient nutrition, or to a lack of 
bone-forming material in the food. In most cases die- 
tetic and hygienic treatment will prove sufficient. 

Rheumatism and gout are kindred diseases caused by 
the fowls being exposed to dampness and by being shut 
up in badly ventilated houses. In fact, nine-tenths of 
all .poultry troubles come from damp and unsanitary 
houses; if the houses were kept perfectly clean, dry, 
and free from insects, fowls would have but few ail- 
ments. There is no cure for rheumatism and gout, and 
scarcely any relief. 

Scaly leg is a disease of the shanks caused by little 
mites that come from damp and filthy conditions. The 
mites get under the scales on the shanks and toes and 
cause swellings on these parts. Scaly leg may be 
quickly cured if treated at the beginning, but it is hard 
to eradicate at an advanced stage. It may be treated 
by rubbing the shanks thoroughly each day with an 
application of lard and kerosene until the growths are 
cleaned off. The most effective way of dealing with the 
trouble is to sell off the afflicted fowls for market 



190 ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY 

poultry and put the houses and surroundings in a 
sanitary condition. 

Bumblefoot is an ulcer on the bottom of the foot of 
a fowl and is usually caused by a bruise. It may be 
treated by applying some kind of ointment or healing 
salve or by cauterizing with strong iodine or a saturated 
solution of permanganate of potash. 

Chicken Pox. — Chicken pox is an ailment that comes 
usually in the fall of the year. The first appearance is 
noticed from the little black specks growing on the face 
and eyes, usually of young fowls. These continue to 
grow until they close the eyes completely and the fowls 
die of starvation, because they cannot see to eat. This 
ailment is the most prevalent in warm or tropical cli- 
mates, where it is called sorehead. Frequently the 
entire head becomes raw, and when in this condition 
the fowl is so afflicted with flies, bugs, and mosquitoes 
that it is almost eaten up. The only treatment to be 
relied on is cleanliness and the bathing of the afflicted 
parts with a 5% or a 10% solution of creoline in water. 

Bad Habits. — Egg eating and picking of sore places on 
the bodies of one another are bad habits acquired by 
fowls kept in confinement with nothing to do. There 
does not seem to be any remedy for these bad habits 
when they are once acquired. In some instances they 
may be checked by transferring the fowls from place 
to place or by giving them perfect freedom. 



POULTRY JUDGING 191 



POULTRY JUDGING 



METHODS OF JUDGING 

In America there are three methods of judging: 
(1) By the official score card of the American Poultry 
Association; (2) by the decimal score card; and (3) by 
comparison. 

The practice of judging by score card was begun and 
has continued in the United States and Canada ever 
since the compilation of the first Standard by the Amer- 
ican Poultry Association. A few shows that are held 
during Nov. and a large number that are held between 
Dec. and April are judged by the score-card method. 
The shows that are held from April to Nov. are judged 
by comparison. The score-card method of judging has 
been recognized by the American Poultry Association 
since its origin. 

The decimal score card was introduced by the late 
I. K. Felch in 1890, and since that time both the official 
and the decimal score cards have been used. Although 
the decimal score card has never been recognized by 
the American Poultry Association, its use continues to 
some extent, although its advocates are decreasing in 
number. 

Although comparison judging has been used for so 
long in the placing of awards, in fact, much longer than 
the score-card method, it did not have the sanction of 
the American Poultry Association until 1904. Judging by 
comparison is practiced each year at all shows held prior 
to Nov. 1 throughout the United States and Canada. 
Nearly all the larger exhibitions are judged under the 
comparison system. 

The advantages of each method of judging depend on 
the ability of the judges accurately to determine how 
nearly the fowls under consideration approach the re- 



OFFICIAL SCORE CARD OF THE 

Fancier's Poultry Association 

DATE VARIFTY 
OWNER SFX 


FNTRY NO WFICHT 




Shape 


Color 


Remarks 


Symmplry 








Wt'igVit nr Si7f> 
















HpnrI flnri RpaV 
















Cnmh 








Wattles & Ear Lobes. 
NppI- 














WingQ 








Rpplf 








Tail 








Rrp^tit 
























♦Hardness of Feather 
tCrPst and Beard 


















♦Applies to Games and Game Bantams 
tApplies to Crested Breeds 


.SprrPfary 





Fig. 1 



192 



POULTRY JUDGING 193 

quirements of the standard. The use of the score card 
is considered of the greatest advantage to the amateur, 
who gains knowledge by a careful study of his own 
fowls in comparing them with the decisions of the 
judge, which are shown in detail on the cards, which 
go to the exhibitors. Comparison judging, however, is 
equally beneficial, provided the exhibitor is present and 
can understand the reasons for the various awards and 
rejections. Comparison judging .becomes of more gen- 
eral use in neighborhoods where poultry shows have 
been held annually for a considerable length of time. 
Score-card judging is in more common use in localities 
where the practice of holding poultry shows is in its 
infancy. More shows are judged, by score cards through- 
out the United States and Canada than are judged by 
comparison. Comparison judging is really an advanced 
system of judging that can be employed by those who 
are familiar with the distinctions considered of the 
greatest importance. 



SCORE CARDS 

A copy of the official score card of the American 
Poultry Association is shown in Fig. 1. The only change 
needed to make this score card local is to print at the 
top in place of "Fancier's Poultry Association," the 
name of the local association using it. This card gives 
a list of the parts of a fowl in respect to which it is 
to be scored, and a space is provided for noting the 
score for each part. A definite number of points is 
assigned to each part, the total number of points indi- 
cating perfection in all parts being 100. The figures 
scored after each part indicate the degree to which it 
approaches perfection according to standard require- 
ments, and the total score shows how closely a fowl ap- 
proaches perfection in all respects, which is 100 points. 
This method is a mathematical analysis of the defects 
found in a fowl, and enables a judge to make a discount 
for each. 



1 11 

THE DECIMAL SCORE CARD 


Rr^^Pfl 


Spy 


Fnfrv N 


O. 


Coop No, Ring No. 


WpiaKf 


.1 

o 


2 

2 

1 
1 


CONDITION 
WEIGHT or SIZE 




DiRECTio.vs For Using This Card.— To cut for weight, comb, head, 
legs, check (X) the features. defectK'p and cut in the column. For shape, 
make cvl above the dotted line. For color, below the line. Shape being 
more defective than color, cut in space for shape, but low enough to include 
the dotted lines. Color being the greater evil, commence the figure just 
above the dotted line and carry deep down into color space. This secures 
der.pntch in use for exhibitions. 


COMB, or CREST 
AND COMB 




HEAD AND 1?^"^ 
ADJUNCTS n^^attl'e^' 




NECK IX' 






BACK ^X 






BREAST ShaP; 






BODY and Shape 
FLUFF Color 






WINGS IX 






TAIL IX 






LEGS and Shape 

TOES Col"® 




Total Defects Score || 




Prpsiflcnt 


.<v.rrp»»ry 


^1 



Fig. 2 



194 



POULTRY JUDGING 195 

The score card was designed for judging poultry at 
exhibitions. The object was not only to decide the 
awards, giving the highest scores and the best prizes to 
the fowls least defective, but to give every fowl exhib- 
ited a rating in terms of the standard requirements and 
in comparison with competing fowls of the same sex and 
variety. This system can be used also by fanciers and 
breeders as a guide in computing values in sale fowls, 
and in selecting breeding and exhibition fowls. 

A copy of the decimal score card is shown in Fig. 2. 
This card provides ten divisions for the features in 
respect to which a fowl is to be scored, and the perfect 
score for each feature is 10 points. Provision is made 
where necessary for scoring features separately in re- 
spect to shape and color. The decimal score card differs 
materially from the official score card, which provides 
for scoring more features, and these are valued differ- 
ently for different breeds. 

The arguments for or the objections against the deci- 
mal system that have arisen have been directed to the 
fact that no two breeds can be valued the same. Those 
who favor the decimal system claim that a perfect back 
in a Plymouth Rock is of equal value to the back of a 
Partridge Cochin or a Game Bantam, and that neither 
should have the advantage over the other in the gen- 
eral division of points; that backs for Plymouth Rocks, 
Cochins, or Bantams can be valued at 10 points as well 
as to have the back of each fowl estimated at a different 
percentage. There is evidence of value in the decimal 
method of calculation from the fact that the monetary 
system of several countries and the metric system are 
based on the decimal system. When matters of such 
vast importance can be conducted best under a decimal 
system, there should be no hesitation in conceding that 
the same system will apply equally well in poultry 
judging. The adoption of the official score card of the 
American Poultry Association seems to have been based 
more on the preference of the members of that organiza- 
tion than on a consideration of its relative convenience. 





























i 




















a 




















e 




















V 




















b: 







































•o 














Of 




■^ 


1' 














< 






a 


s 














gs 




















■ -0 M 




















•-(- ', = 














z 






m 
















Hi 






15^ 




















































<8 


i^M 














< 


















M 


ij 




























1-^ 


oS, 

















< 


s| 




















«3s 














u 




















>; c 




























































£ a" 




















e«2 




















EiS"' 




















>. i- 




















w o 
















s 


1 


















< 


S^5 














1 


•1 


'4 














J 


1 


a 2 















Fig. 3 



196 



POULTRY JUDGING 197 

A convenient comparison -judging score card is shown 
in Fig. 3. Any number of lines needed to complete 
an entry may be added to this card. The comparison 
method of judging consists in a careful examination of 
every section of the fowl, and a detern^ination of the 
quality by this means, the final placing of awards being 
decided without numerical estimates. In fact, to judge 
by comparison is to select the best, by applying, by 
means of sight estimates, the criteria of perfection es- 
tablished by the Standard. 

Comparison judging gives due credit to superior value 
in individual fowls. No other system gives considera- 
tion to unusual quality so equitably as does the com- 
parison system. 

When properly applied, comparison judging can be 
made more equitable in placing awards than any other 
system; for selecting the best fowls in the classes, no 
system is superior to it. The main objection, and, in 
fact, the only real objection that can be made against 
it, is that no record is made, nor is there any reason 
apparent to the absent exhibitor for the award of prizes. 
A record by scores and the results published conveys a 
numerical value for individual fowls to the mind of the 
absentee. In the score card he has comparative nu- 
merical values of the fowls that were outside the list of 
awards. 



JUDGING OF FARM FLOCKS AT FAIRS 
AND SHOWS 

When at Pennsylvania State College, Mr. Kilpatrick, 
then of the Bureau of Animal Industry, displayed a 
remarkable interest in having farmers show their poultry 
at county fairs. He suggested that the flocks to be 
exhibited should consist of 6 females and 1 male, that 
each lot be placed in a coop or runway, where they could 
be readily viewed, and he suggested that the accompany- 
ing score cards should be used to judge them. One 
score card is for judging the general-purpose type of 
itowls, the other for judging the egg-laying type. 
14 



198 POULTRY JUDGING 

Since then several systems for selecting poultry by 
outward appearance have been evolved. One, and per- 
haps the best of these, is the Cornell System, given under 
Selecting Hens for Egg Production. Another system that 
has attracted attention the world over is that of select- 
ing the physical characteristics of layers, as suggested 
by Mr, Barron. 

SCORE CARD FOR FARM FLOCK 

General-'Purpose Type 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 

Head: Small, with small combs and 
wattles; beak, short, stiff, and strong; 
bright, full eye; face, comb and 
wattles bright in color and of fine 
texture 5 

Neck: Rather short, neat, tapering to 

head 2 

Wings: Small and neat 2 

Back: Of good length, rather broad 6 

Breast: Large, full, rounding, well de- 
veloped 6 

Body: Very deep, broad, and compact, 
well fleshed; keel straight and long, 
well rounded out with flesh; should 
resemble a parallelogram in shape 30 

Skin: Smooth and of fine texture; yellow 

skin preferred 4 • 

Flesh: Firm,_ evenly distributed; deep, 
especially in regions of desirable cuts; 
should give indication of tendency to 
fatten easily 10 . 

Shanks: Short, stiff, and clean 3 ■ 

Plumage: Abundant, bright, and well 

kept; free from dark pin feathers 2 

Disposition: Docile; quiet but active — 2 

Vitality: Strong; fowls should give evi- 
dence of perfect health, freedom from 
vermin, etc., and must be neat and 
clean in appearance 10 — 

Size: Females shall weigh not less than 

5 lb. each, males not less than 7 lb... 8 

Uniformity: Flock to consist of 6 females 
and 1 male; females as uniform as 
possible in type, size, color of plum- 
age, etc.; male, same color as females 10 — 



POULTRY JUDGING 199 

Perfect Judge^s 
Score Score 
Disqualifications: Any evidence of dis- 
ease, low vitality, scaly leg destroy- 
ing the natural color of the shank, 
roach back, crooked toe, or wry tail. 
Fowls badly infested with lice shall 
also be disqualified. 

Egg Type Perfect Judge's 

Score Score 

Head: Bright in color, of moderate size, 
short, broad, and neat; beak, short, 
stiff, and strong; eye, bright, fully 
filling the socket, giving an impres- 
sion of alertness and brightness; 
comb well developed, medium to large 
in size, full of blood, and of fine tex- 
ture 8 

'Neck: Of medium length, neat and trim 3 

Back: Long and reasonably broad 8 

Body: Compact, broad, and deep, espe- 
cially in abdomen and fluff, giving 
plenty of room for vital organs; well 
rounded out with flesh; plump, yet 
not fat; good width between pelvic 
bones, 1% in. or better, with good 
distance between rear joint of keel 
bone and pelvic arch; wings of me- 
dium size 20 

Breast: Shallower than rear, present- 
ing a wedge shape when viewed from 
above. Should be rounded, of medium 
size, giving good lung capacity 8 

Shanks and toes: Shanks, stocky, not 
rangy; of medium length. The fowl 
should stand up stiff and straight, 
with body well supported on the tops 
of the legs, the fowl standing firmly 
on the toes. Shanks to have full, 
highly colored skin, loose around the 
shanks; should carry some flesh. Toe- 
nails, short and straight 5 ■ 

Tail: Full and flowing, not pinched or 

stinted; a tendency to be carried high 2 

Plumage: Glossy, flowing, abundant, 

bright, and well kept 2 

Disposition: Always busy, singing con- 
stantly, docile, elusive. The male 
should be courteous to the hens and 
exhibit great courage 2 



200 POULTRY JUDGING 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 
Flesh: Hard, firm, muscular, showing 

little tendency to lay on fat 5 

Vitality: Strong, as evidenced by gen- 
eral appearance and condition of the 

fowl, giving evidence of perfect health, 

freedom from lice, etc.; must be neat 

and clean in appearance 12 ■ • 

Size: Of medium size, female ranging 

from 3J4 to 6 lb.; male, from 4J^ to 

7 lb 5 . 

Eggs: Eggs to be of good size, weighing 

not less than 26 oz. per doz. ; must be 

uniform in shape, size, and color; 

virhite eggs to have the preference 

over brown or tinted eggs, other things 

being equal; eggs not to be considered 

unless all flocks are laying during 

the competition 10 • 

Uniformity: Flock is to consist of 6 

females and 1 male; females should be 

as nearly alike as possible in type, 

size, plumage, etc. ; male should be 

of same color as females ; 10 ■ • 

Disqualifications: Any evidence of dis- 
ease or low vitality, scaly leg de- 
stroying the natural color of the 

shank, roach back, or wry tail. Fowls 

badly infested with lice shall also be 

disqualified. 

UTILITY SCORE CARD 

Another score card for judging layers at utility poul- 
try shows is shown in Fig. 4. It was compiled by Irving 
C. Lewis, of Ulysses, Pa., and is copyrighted. The card 
can be purchased from Mr. Lewis. 



UTILITY SCORE CARD 

All Varieties 
For Use in Utility Poultry Shows 



Type Date. 

Coop No Band No 

Breed Sex . . 



Weigh 

Condi 
Color 
Capac 
Prepol 


t 


Cuts 






Comb.. 




ity 




ency 






f Left..... 






Right 




Pelv- • 


Average 






Shape 




EggrT 


ype 




Total Cuts 




Score 





Judge . 
Show. 



Secretary 

Copyright, 1914, by Irving C. Lewis, Ulysses, Pa. 
201 Fig. 4 



202 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 

POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSO- 
CIATIONS 



BEGINNING OF POULTRY SHOWS 

The first poultry exhibition is thought to have been the 
one held in the Zoological Gardens of London, Eng- 
land, in 1846; the first poultry show held in Birmingham, 
England, was in 1849. The first poultry exhibition held 
in America is credited to Boston in 1849. The first 
American poultry show to attract world-wide attention 
was held in the American Museum, New York City, in 
February, 1854, under the management of P. T. Barnum. 
The second show was held a year later at the same 
place. This show was really the beginning of live 
interest in the breeding of fowls for exhibition in 
America. 

From 1860 to 1865 but little interest was taken in poul- 
try exhibitions in America. From then to the present 
time they have increased so fast as to surprise the 
world. During the show season of 1911 and 1912 more 
than 700 poultry exhibitions were held in the United 
States and Canada, and more than 200 in England. The 
number of shows held in the United States and Canada 
during the years 1917 and 1918 were considerably less 
than prior to these dates. The same conditions prevailed 
in England. 

The great shows of England were the Dairy, the 
Birmingham, and the Crystal Palace shows. These were 
discontinued to some extent from 1914 to 1919. These 
shows were formerly held between the fifteenth of 
October and the first of December. The Crystal Palace 
show of London, England, was for many years the larg- 
est and most highly considered of all poultry shows, but 
within the last few years the New York, Boston, and 
Chicago shows have ranked very high. The New York 
and Boston shows have come to be considered of equal 
importance with the Crystal Palace exhibition. 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 203 



AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION 

The American Poultry Association, a national organi- 
zation of breeders of standard-bred poultry is the 
authoritative body of the United States and Canada. 
This organization owns the copyrights of the Standard 
of Perfection, issues show rules and regulates the han- 
dlings of shows, and lends its best efforts to the general 
upbuilding of poultry culture. 

AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION SHOW RULES 

Poultry associations or societies. Associate Members 
of the American Poultry Association, giving poultry 
shows or exhibitions, governed by and subject to the 
Association's Rules and Regulations, must print in the 
premium lists or on their entry sheets in bold-faced type: 

"The (full name of the association) being a member 

of the American Poultry Association, their 

Annual Show (dates here), will be governed by and run 
under the latest revised Official Poultry Show Rules of 
the American Poultry Association. All prizes will be 
awarded strictly in accordance with the American Stand- 
ard of Perfection." 

Section 1. Under normal conditions entries shall close 
the day advertised (entries bearing postmark of that 
date being eligible) and entry fees must be paid on or 
before that time, except when telegraphed, and in such 
cases remittance must follow by first mail. 

Sec. 2. Any person under disqualification by the 
American Poultry Association is ineligible to enter, to 
compete, or to act as judge or in any capacity. 

Sec. 3. All entries must be the bona-fide property of 
the exhibitor. Otherwise he forfeits all entry fees, all 
prize money, and all other premiums, as well as the 
right to have his birds remain in the show room. In 
cases of disqualifications under this rule other exhibits 
shall, if qualified, be moved up in the list of winners, 
subject to the disqualified exhibitor's right of appeal. 



204 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 

Sec. 4. In cases where it shall come to the knowledge 
of the management that disqualified parties have, un- 
known to them, succeeded in making an entry or 
entries, the right is reserved to cancel such entries, and 
such party shall forfeit his entry fee, prize money, and 
other premiums. 

The show management reserves the right to refuse 
entries from exhibitors whose conduct, in their opinion, 
makes it desirable for the welfare of the show that their 
birds be debarred from competition. 

Sec. 5. Each specimen regularly entered as provided 
by the rules of the local association will be judged in 
its order unless removed from its coop by written order 
of the secretary or marked "Not for competition" when 
the entry is made. Exhibitors will not be allowed to 
handle or interfere with any of the exhibits in any class 
after the judging of any variety has commenced. 

In cases where entries are made at shows where cata- 
logs are issued and ej^hibits are not sent, entry fees 
will not be returned. Associations that do not issue 
catalogs may use their discretion in this matter. 

Sec. 6. Exhibitors attempting to interfere with or in- 
fluence the judge or judges shall be dealt with as pro- 
vided in Section 3. 

Sec. 7. Judges shall be required to sign the judge's 
book or card provided by the show association. An 
official record of these awards shall be preserved by the 
secretary for 3 yr. for reference. 

Sec. 8. No specimen shall be removed from the show 
until after its close except upon the written consent of 
the show secretary or superintendent. 

Sec. 9. All entries are entered and shown at the risk 
of owners, and while associations are expected to exer- 
cise all reasonable care in the handling and protection 
of the exhibits, such associations will in no case be 
liable except as provided in Rule 10. 

Sec. 10. Birds must be returned promptly at the close 
of the show, and any lost in the reshipping through 
proved carelessness or negligence on the part of the 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 205 

show association, are to be paid for by such association 
at a value not to exceed $10 per bird, as agreed liqui- 
dated damages, it being understood that in subscribing 
I to this rule the exhibitor does not waive any rights he 
may have at law. 

Sec. 11. Any exhibitor disqualified for fraudulent 
practices shall have the right of appeal to the Executive 
Board of the American Poultry Association within 1 yr. 
! from the date of his disqualification. 

Sec. 12. Notices of a disqualification with a detailed 

statement shall be mailed, by the show association, 

within 10 da., to the secretary of the American Poultry 

I Association and by registered mail to the disqualified 

i party. 

Sec. 13. Protests are to be entertained by local asso- 
'. ciations only in cases of apparent dishonesty, ignorance, 
i or carelessness on the part of the judge. In scoring the 
1 specimens in dispute, the judge, together with the presi- 
dent and secretary of the local association (or represen- 
i tatives appointed by the management of the local asso- 
I ciation), shall constitute a committee of three, and the 
I majority decision of this committee shall be final. Score 
j cards made out by the judge in deciding protested awards 
! are to be retained by the local association. 

When protests are entertained, where judging has been 
done by score card, the specimens under dispute shall 
be rescored by the judge, he to act as a n.ember of the 
committee of three, as provided, the rescoring to be done 
in the presence of the other two members of the com- 
mittee on protests. 
Protests are not to be entertained except when made 
I in writing, and the person making same shall deposit 
with the secretary of the local association the sum of 
I five dollars, this money to be returned to the person 
making the protest if his protest be sustained; if protest 
be not sustained, the deposit becomes the property of 
the local association. 

Sec. 14. Notice of protests that are sustained shall be 
mailed within 10 da. to the Secretary of the American 



206 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 

Poultry Association, to be brought by him before the 
Executive Board, before whom an appeal may be taken 
by the judge within 1 yr. 

Sec. 15. No judge shall exhibit in any class which he 
is judging and he shall refuse to consider any bird that 
he may recognize as having been owned by him 6 mo. 
previous to the show, and no exhibitor or any one inter- 
ested in any exhibit that may be in the class shall act 
as assistant to the judge. 

Sec. 16. Associations shall have the right to reassign 
judges for cause or to add to the list of judges as occa- 
sion may require. 

Sec. 17. The placing of names, leg bands, or marks of 
any sort, not provided by the show, on birds or on or 
in the coops shall be left to the rules of the show- 
associations. 

Sec. 18. Show managements shall have the right to 
refuse entry to the show room, or to remove from the 
same all diseased or unsightly birds, and are expected 
to avail themselves of this right. Entry fees on such 
birds shall be forfeited. 

Sec. 19. All specimens must be exhibited in their 
natural condition with the exception of Games and Game 
Bantams. Any violation of this rule shall exclude such 
specimens from competition and cause the withholding 
of all premiums awarded. 

Sec, 20. Any matter not provided for in the foregoing 
rules and regulations will be referred to the executive 
committee of the local show for decision. 

Sec. 21. Where Standard varieties of poultry that re- 
quire the double-mating system are exhibited, local asso- 
ciations are permitted to offer special prizes only for both 
single entries and pens containing specimens bred in 
accordance with the system of double mating practiced 
in such varieties. These specials must be plainly de- 
signated "Special Prizes" so as to be distinguished from] 
the regular premiums offered for the Standard awards. 

Sec. 22. Every exhibitor hereby agrees to submit toj 
the jurisdiction of the American Poultry Association am 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 207 

i to abide by these rules whether he is a member of the 
Association or not. 

Sec. 23. Any show association may make additional 
rules or regulations provided they are not inconsistent 
with or in conflict with these rules. 

Sec. 24. All poultry associations that are members of 
the American Poultry Association shall be permitted 
to designate their exhibitions as official poultry shows, 
and to use the official entry books, entry blanks, judges* 
I cards, ribbons, and other supplies furnished by the Amer- 
ican Poultry Association. 

Sec. 25. These Show Rules are official and are copy- 
righted and can be used only by poultry associations or 
societies that are associate members of the American 
Poultry Association. 

Sec. 26. Local associations must offer premiums on all 
varieties of Standard-Bred fowls. 

Sec. 27. Special for best display any one variety shall 
be made on the points, first prize to count 6; second, 4; 
third, 3; fourth, 2; fifth, 1; pens to count double. 

If more than five awards are placed in any class, all 
places below 5, shall receive one point for each such 
award in the single classes and two points for pens. 

Sec. 28. Premium ribbons shall be displayed only at 
the show, time, and place where the ribbons were 
awarded, and no other ribbons or special prizes shall 
be placed on exhibition at any other than the show at 
which they were awarded. 

Sec. 29. Exhibitors making charges of dishonest prac- 
tices or statements of a defamatory nature against any 
exhibitor or exhibitors, judge or judges, at any show that 
is an associate member of the American Poultry Asso- 
ciation, shall be required to appear before the board of 
directors or show committee of that show and prove that 
the charges so made are true, and if the said charges 
are not substantially true the exhibitor making the said 
charge shall forfeit back to the association all ribbons, 
medals, and awards of any and all kinds and nature, 
and the exhibit of the said exhibitor shall either be 



208 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 

treated as a display exhibit or removed from the show, 
at discretion of the management of the show. 

A report of the committee, together with a charge of 
conduct unbecoming a member of the American Poultry- 
Association, must be made in regular form by the presi- 
dent or secretary of the associate member. In case such 
charges are not made as above provided, the member or 
members considering themselves defamed may make such 
charges direct to the President or Secretary of the Amer- 
ican Poultry Association. 



MEMBERSHIP IN AMERICAN POULTRY 
ASSOCIATION 

The rules governing membership in the American 
Poultry Association will be found in their publications. 
Those desirous of becoming members should send to the 
secretary of the association for the latest revised rules 
of organization and application for membership. 

The American Poultry Association has issued a book 
of rules for the holding of shows, and non-members may 
obtain a copy of the rules by application to the secre- 
tary of the association. 



THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF 
PERFECTION 

The American Standard of Perfection, the only guide 
for judging poultry in America, is issued by the Amer- 
ican Poultry Association. This book has been revised 
about every 5 yr., and the next revision will occur in 
1923. Changes are made in the Standard of Perfection 
only after due consideration of written notices specify- 
ing word for word the proposed change or changes, and 
the written copy must be filed with the secretary of the 
Association fully 3 mo. before the annual meeting. 

Admission of New Breeds and Varieties to American 
Standard of Perfection.— New breeds and varieties are 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 209 

admitted to the American Standard of Perfection under 
the regulations given in the constitution and by-laws of 
the American Poultry Association, a copy of which can 
always be procured from the secretary of that Associa- 
tion. Any one who contemplates making application for 
such admission should study these rules very carefully, 
for there is no other way to obtain recognition except 
through a full and complete compliance with these rules. 



STANDARD AND NON-STANDARD VARI- 
ETIES OF POULTRY 

Show-room classifications are not the same in all 
countries or even in all parts of the same country. 
In America they are usually made to conform to the 
breeds and their varieties as listed in the American 
Standard of Perfection. But in addition to such varie- 
ties, some show-room classifications will include a few 
of the non-standard varieties, and the greater number 
of them will permit classes for any of the non-standard 
varieties, either of a particular breed or of many breeds. 

The list of breeds and varieties of poultry in the tables 
on pages 210 to 220 includes only those that are known 
to reproduce their kind of a settled type of form and 
color. In the column headed Standard Varieties are 
listed the varieties of fowls included in the American 
Standard of Perfection; in the column headed Non- 
standard Varieties are listed the varieties not included 
in that publication, but which are bred in the United 
States and other countries, many of them being standard 
varieties in other countries. In this list, for convenience, 
the Antwerp Brahma is classed as an Asiatic fowl. This 
is not strictly correct, as it is not a true Brahma and 
might be classed as a Belgian fowl. 



210 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 





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POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 221 
STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULTRY 

The table on pages 222 to 225 gives the standard 
weights of all poultry having standard weights, the aver- 
age weights of those standard fowls that do not have 
standard weights, and the average weights of non-standard 
poultry. The following list contains the notes corre- 
sponding to the references in the table and includes the 
disqualifying weights of bantam fowls: 

Notes on Standard Weights of Poultry 
♦Non-standard breed. 
iCock and cockerel. 
2Hen and pullet. _ 
3No standard weights. 
«At 10 mo. 
^Penciled Hamburgs. In other Hamburg varieties the fowls 

are somewhat heavier. 
^Colored Dorking cocks often weigh from 12 to 14 lb.; hens 
and cockerels, from 9 to 10 lb.; and pullets, from 7 to 8 lb. 
^It is not unusual for Houdans to exceed these weights. 
^Standard height, cock, 26 in.; hen, 18 in.; cockerel, 18 in.; 

pullet, 15 in. 
^Disqualifying weights for Booted Bantams: cocks, 28 oz.; 

hens, 24 oz.; cockerels, 24 oz.; pullets, 22 oz. 
loDisqualifying weights for Brahma Bantams: cocks, 34 oz.; 

hens, 39 oz.; cockerels, 30 oz.; pullets, 28 oz. 
"Disqualifying weights for Cochin Bantams: cocks, 34 oz.; 

hens, 30 oz.; cockerels, 30 oz.; pullets, 28 oz. 
^^Disqualifying weights for Black-Tailed Japanese Bantams: 
cocks, 30 oz.; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. 
Disqualifying weights for White Japanese Bantams: cocks, 
30 oz.; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. Dis- 
qualifying weights for Black Japanese Bantams: cocks, 
30 oz. ; hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. 
13 Disqualifying weights for Polish Bantams: cocks, 30 oz.; 

hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. 
^^Disqualifying weights for Rose-Comb Bantams: cocks, 28 oz.; 

hens, 24 oz.; cockerels, 24 oz.; pullets, 22 oz. 
isDisqualifying weights for Sebright Bantams: cocks, 30 oz.; 

hens, 26 oz.; cockerels, 26 oz.; pullets, 24 oz. 
i^English standard weights for Malay Bantams: cocks, 33^ lb.; 

cockerels and hens, 3 lb.; pullets, 2 lb. 
I'Weight of adult Bronze turkey cock; yearling cock weighs 

33 1b. 
isWeight of adult Narragansett -turkey cock; yearling cock 
weighs 25 lb. 



222 POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 
STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULTRY 

Fowls 



Classes and Breeds 



Cock 
Pounds 



Hen 
Pounds 



Cockerel 
Pounds 



American fowls: _ 
Plymouth Rock. 

Wyandotte 

Rhode Island 

, Red 

Dominique 

Java 

*Jersey Blue 

Buckeye 

.Asiatic fowls: 

Light Brahma . . 
Dark Brahma . . 

Cochin 

Langshan 

Belgian fowls:. 
*AntwerpBrahma 

*Ardenne 

*Brabant 

*Braekel 

i*Bruges 

*Campine 

*Flemish 

*Herve 

*Huttegem 

*Malines. 

Dutch fowls: 

*Breda 

*Drente 

^Hamburg 

*Owl-B e a r d e d 

Dutch 

Red Cap 

English fowls: 
^Colored Dorking 
S i 1 V e r-G ray 

Dorking 

White Dorking . 

Orpington 

*Scotch Dumpy. . 
♦Scotch Gray .... 



83^ 



10 
9 

12 
11 
11 

12 

15 to eyi 

8 

16 to 8 

18 to 10 
14H to 5 
16H to 9 

13 to 4 

19 to 11 
19 to 113^ 

16 to 9 
15 to 5^ 

7H 
73^ 

9 

8 

10 

18 
19 to 11 



7H 



5 

7H 



9M 



9H 

7y2 



yy2 
24 to 5 

6 

24 to 6 

27 to 9 

23 H to 4 

243^ to 6 

22 to 3 

27 to 9 

28 to 10 

25 to 6}4 
24 to 41^ 

64 



5H 



8 
25 to 6 
27 to 9 



7K 

7J^ 
6 

8 

7 



10 



6J^ 



8 

7 

61/^ 

8M 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 223 
Table — (Continued) 



Classes and Breeds 



Cock 
Pounds 



Hen 


Cockerel 


Pounds 


Pounds 


8J^to93^ 


9 to 10 


7 
6^ 

24Kto5^ 
26 to 7 
6 to 7 


7 
73^ 

6 to 7 


25 to 7 




7 


« 


6 

7 
24 to 5 

25 
24 to 5 


7 
7 


231^ to 41^ 




43/2 
5 
4 


4V2 


7M 


7y2 


63I 
21 to 5 


6V2 

6^ 


5 ^ 
4 
24 


8 
8 
6 
5 


221^ to 4 





Pullet 
Pounds 



English fowls — 
(Continued) : 

Sussex 

French fowls: 

Crevecceur 

'Houdan 

La Fleche 

*La Bresse 

*Bourbourg 

*Faverolle 

Game fowls: 
^Exhibition Game 
Cornish, or In- 
dian, Game. . . 
Whit e-Laced 
Red Cornish. . 

^Malay 

^Sumatra 

*Aseel 

*01d-English 

Germayi fowls: 

Lakeiif elder 

Medit erranean 
fowls: 

Ancona 

Andalusian 

Leghorn 

Single-Comb Mi- 
norca 

S.-C. White, and 
Buff, and Rose- 
Comb Black 

Minorca 

Spanish 

^Polish fowls: 

Miscellaneous fowls: 

^Frizzle 

*Naked Neck. . . . 

*Runipless 

3Silky 

3Sultan 

♦Yokohama, Tosa, 
or Phoenix. . . . 



103^toll3^ 

8 

73^ 

Sli 
15 to 63^ 
^6H to 9 
7 to 83^ 

17 to 9 



9 

15 to 6 
16 

143^ to 7 

15 to 6 



53^ 
6 

5y2 



8 

8 

153^ to 63 



7 
6 
15 

14 3^ to 6 



7 to 



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4 



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POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 



' 


Table— ^Continued) 
Bantam Fowls 






Classes and Breeds 


Cock 
Ounces 


Hen 
Ounces 


Cockerel 
Ounces 


Pullet 
Ounces 


Standard bantam 
fowls: 
^Booted 


26 
30 
30 

22 
26 
26 
26 
26 

26 
26 
30 
30 
30 
26 
26 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
26 
30 
30 


22 
26 
26 

20 
22 
22 
22 

22 

22 
24 
26 
26 
26 
22 
24 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
22 
26 
26 


22 
26 
26 

20 

22 
22 
22 
22 

22 
24 
26 
26 
26 
22 
24 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
22 
26 
26 


20 


wBrahma 

"Cochin 


24 , 
24 ' 


Exhibition Game 

Bantam 

12 Japanese 

i^Polish 


18 
20 
20 


"Rose-Comb 

isSebright 

Miscellaneous 
bantams: 

*Andalusian 

*Aseel . 


20 
20 

20 
22 


♦Frizzle 


24 


♦German 

♦Langshan 

♦Leghorn 

iBMalay 


24 
24 
20 
22 


♦Minorca 


24 
24 


♦Rumpless 

♦Scotch Gray 

ssilky 


24 

24 ' 
24 


♦Spanish 

♦Sultan 

♦Yokohama 


20 
24 
24 





Ducks 






Classes and Breeds 


Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 


Adult 

Duck 

Poimds 


Young 
Drake 
Pounds 


Young 

Duck 

Pounds 


Aylesbury 

3Call 


9 
123^ to 3 

7 
7 
7 
4^ 


8 
22to2J^ 

6 
6 
6 
4 


8 

7 
6 
6 
6 

34 


7 


Cayuga 


6 


Crested 


5 


East India 

♦Huttegem 

Indian Runner . . . 


5 

5 

^33^ 



POULTRY SHOWS AND ASSOCIATIONS 225 
Table — (Conlinu ed) 



Classes and Breeds 


Adult 

Drake 

Pounds 


Adult Young 

Duck Drake 

Pounds Pounds 


Young 
Duck 
Pounds 


*Khaki 


7 
10 

7 
7 
9 
9 
8 


6 

7 
6 
6 

8 
8 

7 


6 

8 
6 
6 

8 
8 
6M 


5 


Muscovy 

*Orpington 

^Partridge 

Pekin 

Rouen 


6 
5 
5 

7 

7 


Swedish . . . 


51^ 







Geese 



Classes and Breeds 


Adult 
Gander 
Pounds 


Adult 
Goose 
Pounds 


Young 
Gander 
Pounds 


Young 
Goose 
Pounds 




20 

12 
10 
20 
25 
12 


18 

10 
8 
18 
20 
10 


16 

10 
8 
18 
20 
10 


14 


*Buff 






8 


Egyptian 

Embden 

Toulouse 

Wild, or Canadian 


6 
16 
16 

8 



Turkeys, Guinea Fowls, and Peafowls 



Classes and Breeds 


Cock 
Pounds 


Hen 
Pounds 


Cockerel 
Pounds 


Pullet 
Pounds 


Turkeys: 
Black 


27 

30 

"36 

27 

118 to 24 
118 to 20 

28 
1830 

30 

27 

28 

14 to 6 
112 to 18 


18 
18 
20 
18 

212 to 16 

212 to 16 

16 

18 
18 
18 
18 

23 to 5 

27 to 12 


18 
22 
25 
18 

18 
20 
20 
18 
20 


12 


Bourbon Red. . . 
Bronze 


14 
16 


Buff 


12 


*Cambridge 

Bronze 

*Fawn 




*Gray 


10 


Narragansett . . . 

*Ronquieres 

Slate 


12 
12 
12 


White 


14 


Guinea fowls: 

All varieties .... 
Peafowls: 

All varieties .... 





226 



MARKING OF POULTRY 



MARKING OF POULTRY FOR IDEN- 
TIFICATION 

MARKING OF FOWLS 

To attain the greatest success in breeding poultry, 
whether for egg production, market purposes, or fancy 
stock, a poultryman must know the pedigree of the 
fowls mated, and in order to be able to identify each 
fowl, some system of marking chicks must be adopted. 

A system of toe markings that can be used for a 
limited number of fowls is shown in Fig. 1. As shown 
in the illustration, fifteen different combi- 
nations can be made by punching holes in 
the toes of chicks. A number of forms of 
punches are made for this purpose; several 
of these are shown in Fig. 2 (a), (&), (c), 
(d), and ie). Care must be exercised to 
entirely remove the severed portion of the 
web to prevent it from growing together 
again. The wound will heal in a few days. 
In building up a strain of good layers, 
the beginning is usually made by marking 
chicks from the most prolific layers. The 
C5,^^^'*> same principle is applied in the establishment 
^"yfv^Hj q£ ^ good strain of market poultry. These 







markings are used on the progeny of selected 
stock only and serve as a guide for the 
selection of the pullets that should be saved 
for winter layers. Those that have toe 
markings should be kept, no matter what 
their appearance may be, for in this way 
only can a good start be made. 
Records can be kept quite as readily with 
chicks artifically hatched as with hen-hatched chicks. 
The partitioned incubator egg tray can be used for holding 
the eggs from selected hens. The eggs are marked 



Fig. 1 



FOR IDENTIFICATION 



227 



with numbers before they are placed in the incubator 
fcr hatching. On the eighteenth day of incubation, the 
numbered eggs are transferred from the regular egg tray 
into the special tray. When hatched in this tray, the 
chicks cannot get out of it. After they have been marked, 
the chicks may be placed in a brooder with other chicks 
with no danger of their identity becoming lost. Separated 
trays can be used in any incubator. Partitions can be 
made of tin or 'wood, and they can be placed in the egg 
trays to separate the eggs as well as the chicks when 
they are hatched. When they are used, the unmarked 
chicks must not be allowed to drop into the nursery; if 
this is permitted, their identity will be lost. 

To keep a correct record of chicks hatched by hens, 
each hen should have eggs from only one hen given her 
for hatching. 




fdj 



Fig. 2 



The toe-marking system is satisfactory for a small 
number of selected fowls, but when the breeding opera- 
tions are on an extensive scale some other system of 
marking must be adopted. Bands of some kind for 
attaching to the shanks, as shown in Fig. 3, are satis- 
factory for marking fowls and permit of sufficient 



228 



MARKING OF POULTRY 



variations. Several forms of aluminum bands are shown 
in Fig. 4. The small band shown in (a) is suitable 




Fig. 3 

for placing around the shank of a chick, and later, when 
the shank grows too large for this band, it may be 
removed and fastened thorough the web of the wing. 
The band shown in (6) is used for chicks also, but is 



raj 

Smrni^ h^ 



m^aS^ 



(c) 




Fig. 4 




rather too wide to insert in the web of the wing. After 
a fowl reaches its full growth, a band like that shown in 



FOR IDENTIFICATION 



229 



(c), which may be sealed, may be fastened about the 
shank. This band, fastened with a rivet, is shown in 
(d). The fastening is done very easily with a pair 
of pincers, as shown in Fig. 5. After being well fastened 




Fig. 5 

or sealed, such a band will last the lifetime of a fowl, 
unless removed by cutting. All of these bands may be 
stamped with any number or other characters desired. 
A type of aluminum band known as an interlocking 
band is shown in Fig. 4 (e). 

Colored celluloid bands are used for marking fowls 
kept in large flocks. They are most useful when used 
in connection with 'the metal bands and serve as a 
means of quick identification for various large groups 





of fowls when they are kept in big flocks; that is, all 
the chicks hatched in one year may have a blue band; 
those hatched the next year, a red band; the next, a 
yellow band; and so on. In this way the age of fowls 

16 



230 MARKING OF POULTRY 

may be told at a glance. The bands may be used also to 
identify strains or families of fowls. Though they have 
their usefulness in this way, they are not an absolutely 
accurate means of identifying fowls; in addition they 
are liable to be lost from the shank; in such cases, 
if no other band were used, the identity of a fowl 
would be lost. Three celluloid markers are shown in 
Fig. 6. The ring shown in (a) encircles the shank a 
number of times. One end of this is hooked about the 
shank and then the rest is wdund around much in the 
same manner that a key is worked on a key ring. The 
ring shown in (b) is a small one of the same type as 
that shown in (o). In (c) is shown a flat celluloid band. 
Poultry supply houses sell celluloid rings and bands in 
as many as eight different colors. 



MARKING OF PIGEONS 

To build up the productiveness of a flock of pigeons 
and to maintain the quality of the squabs, it is necessary 
to mark breeding pigeons in such a way that their 
identity can be easily determined. This is usually done 
by fastening a suitably marked band of some kind 
about the shank of each bird. A careful record of each 
breeding pigeon should be kept in a record book. This 
record should include the ancestors of each bird, their 
egg production, the time it takes for them to hatch 
their squabs, the time it takes for them to rear their 
squabs to a marketable size, and notes as to the quality 
of their squabs. With this information systematically 
arranged it will be possible to prevent harmful inbreed- 
ing and to mate the offspring of different pigeons in 
such a way as to improve the productiveness and quality 
of the flock. 

Bands suitable for marking breeding pigeons can be ob- 
tained in several styles from dealers in poultry supplies. 
Some of these bands are made so that they indicate only 
the year in which the breeders were first mated. This 
is usually done in one of two ways, either by having 



FOR IDENTIFICATION 



231 



diflferent-colored bands for each year, samples of which 
are shown in Fig. 7, or by stamping the year on the band, 




Fig. 7 

as shown in Fig. 8. The colored bands are usually more 
easily distinguished at a little distance than those 
stamped with figures. Other shank bands, in addition to 
indicating the year in which the breeders were first 
mated, have a numeral or some other mark that indicates 




Fig. 8 



the ancestors of the birds. Such bands, however, are 
used principally in the breeding of exhibition pigeons, 
the system being too complicated for the producer of 
commercial squabs. 

In marking breeding pigeons, it is customary to place 
the band on the right shank of male birds and on the 
left shank of female 
birds. Squabs that are 
to be kept for breeders 
should have a band 
placed on them as soon 
as they are ready to 
leave the nest. At this 
time it is impossible to 
determine the sex, but 
the band can be placed on either shank to preserve the 
identity of the squabs, and can be shifted, if necessary. 




2Z2 MARKING OF POULTRY 

when the sex can be determined. Two shank bands at- 
tached to birds are shown in Fig. 9; the one shown in 
(a) is attached to the right shank of a male pigeon, and 
that shown in (b) is attached to the left shank of a 
female pigeon. 

In Fig. 10 is shown a device for holding pigeons while 
bands are being placed on their shanks. Such a device 




Fig. 10 

is particularly useful when the band must be placed 
on the bird by one person. In using this device the 
pigeon is pushed gently, head down, into the cone, 
where it is held without injury. The band is then 
fastened about the shank and the pigeon released from 
the cone. 



POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 233 

CALENDAR FOR THE POULTRY- 
MAN'S YEAR 

October 

October is usually the beginning of the poultryman's 
year. Ring out the old and ring in the new is usually 
practiced at this time. All of the old fowls that are 
useless should be marketed; the flock should be sepa- 
rated and the old hens and young pullets placed in 
different apartments. 

As the weather grows colder, more precaution must be 
taken to prevent ailment from creeping into the flock. 
All specimens, old or young, which lack size, strength, 
or vitality should be culled out from the flock; nothing 
but strong, healthy specimens should remain. 

The poultry buildings should be of such a character 
that no drafts of air can blow through them. All air 
and ventilation should come in from the front of the 
building. 

November 

The spring-hatched pullets should be laying at this 
time, and the best of egg-producing rations should be 
fed to them and to the old hens as well. 

The growing green food having disappeared, a plentiful 
supply of sprouted oats, alfalfa hay, and other green 
foods should be provided to take its place. The floor 
of the poultry house should be well covered with dry 
litter and the green food should be thrown on it. This 
will encourage the fowls to work for all the food they 
get, and in this way they will be made active and more 
healthy. Fowls that are too weak to work for a living 
are usually poor layers and might as well be sold to 
market. 

An additional culling of the flock should be made at 
this 'time. No male over 2 yr. old should be kept. The 
earliest and best cockerels of the year are best for 
breeding purposes. 



234 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 

No hen or pullet that does not show the proper indi- 
cation for egg production should be kept after this 
period. 

November and December are the early winter months 
during which time all hens and pullets should begin 
to lay. If they have been carefully fed they will do so. 

Hens and pullets should have a good egg-producing 
diet at this time. One of the necessities of poultry 
during winter months is that they shall be protected 
from the elements, have plenty of exercise of some kind, 
and be fed on a liberal grain ration composed of the 
grains best suited to egg production. A liberal supply 
of green food, also, should be fed during the winter 
months. 

December 

This month is the most severe on poultry and the most 
trying on poultrymen of all months of the year. The 
houses should be kept warm and dry and free from 
drafts; all cracks and openings should be carefully 
covered or stopped up to prevent drafts through the 
houses. 

Hens will lay but few eggs at this time, when the 
price is high and the eggs most desirable. For this 
reason every effort possible should be made to make the 
hens lay. The only way to secure a good supply of eggs 
for market at this time is to have a thorough knowledge 
of the possibilities of egg production through scientific 
management and feeding. No one not fully informed on 
these matters can hope to have a full egg supply from 
hens or pullets during midwinter months. 

Plenty of green food, well-selected grains, the proper 
quantity of nourishing food, and fresh water are neces- 
sities at this time. 

January 

Poultry work requires constant attention during this 
month. 

Cull out the less perfect fowls and sell all those not 
intended for producing market eggs or for breeding. 



POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 235 

During the last part of January look over the fowls and 
become acquainted with those suitable for breeding, 
so that no time will be lost when the season for mating 
arrives. 

Fowls will need more fattening food, such as corn and 
barley. A good plan to follow during the winter is to 
feed a grain ration composed half of corn and the other 
half of equal parts of wheat, oats, and barley. 

Twice a week or every other day feed green cut bone. 

Dry mash is one of the most popular kinds of food for 
poultry during the winter months. One-third of a 
winter dry-mash mixture should consist of corn meal and 
the rest of wheat bran and wheat middlings and some 
ground oats. The same ration should be fed during Jan., 
Feb., and March, especially in parts of the world where 
these months are cold and stormy. 

Supply fowls with plenty of green foods, such as 
turnips, rutabagas, cabbage, lettuce, cut clover hay, cut 
alfalfa, etc. 

February 

Winter is coming to a close, and spring-like diseases 
will prevail in some localities. Farthest north, cold 
weather will continue for some time. 

Houses should be protected from spring rains, snow 
and sleet; either glass windows or curtain fronts make 
good protection. 

It is now time to mate fowls for the production of 
eggs for hatching; select the best of all and keep them 
separate for special breeding. No sick fowls nor fowls 
that have deformities or that lack superior quality 
should ever be used in the breeding pen. The best of 
all the fowls on any farm will produce many culls; 
this is reason enough for using only the selected speci- 
mens for breeding. 

A liberal supply of green food is always beneficial 
at this time, because such food increases the density 
of the albumen of an egg, and the heavier or more 
dense the albumen of the egg the greater strength it 
will have for nourishing a chick in the embryo state. 



236 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR " 

March 

March is the most uncertain month of the year. 
Weather conditions cannot be depended on. March 
winds are the most piercing of the year, and the fowls 
must be protected from the elements. 

Little chicks should be kept under hovers that are 
inside of a building that is tight enough to protect them 
from the elements. March chicks make Nov. layers. 

Incubators should now be in action. Nests made for 
sitting hens should be deep so as to provide a comfort- 
able nest for the hen. Always dust the body of a sitting 
hen with insect powder. Persian insect powder is the 
best. Dust it down well into the feathers and close to 
the skin of the fowl. This dusting should be renewed 
every 3 or 4 da. for 1 wk. or 10 da. 

A soap box 18 in. or 2 ft. square with some sand or 
earth in the bottom and dry hay or straw packed well 
down on top of this, provides an excellent nest for a 
sitting hen. 

The nest for a sitting hen should always be placed 
where she will have plenty of room, light, and shelter 
from the elements, yet be confined where she cannot 
run away from the eggs. She should be watched and 
put back on the eggs if she seems to neglect them. 
April 

April is usually the most favorable month of the year 
for hatching chicks; at this time the grass and all 
vegetables are sending up new growth, and there is plenty 
of natural food for the little chicks. 

April is the month when all incubators should be 
filled with eggs for hatching, and all broody hens should 
have a clutch of eggs. 

See to it that the brooding hens are well fed while 
doing their family duty. Laying hens should have more 
green food at this time than before. Corn bread is 
good food for the mother hen and little chicks. To make 
such corn bread mix 1 teaspoonful of baking powder 
into a mixture composed of 1 pt. of corn meal, J^ pt. 
of wheat bran, 4 oz. of good meat scrap, and a little 



POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 



237 



bone meal, and add a pinch of salt. Stir the mass up, 
moistening it well with milk or water, milk preferred, 
and bake in the oven. When well baked and cool, it 
can be crumbled and fed to the little chicks. 

April, May, and June are the spring months in 
northern latitudes. Less fattening grain should be fed 
during this period; some wheat and less corn should 
be fed to the poultry, and they should have an increased 
supply of green food; if bugs and worms are not plenti- 
ful on the range, they 
should have animal food of 
some kind. 

Young chicks and grow- 
ing stock should be fed lib- 
erally during this period; 
they cannot have too much 
wholesome grain. Some 
dry mash is helpful; if it 
is desirable to grow them 
quickly for market pur- 
poses, wet mash may be 
used. 

May 

Both old fowls and 
young chicks should have 
greater freedom during the 
month of May than during 
the preceding months. 

All parts of the poultry 
houses, the nest boxes, and 
the runways should be thoroughly cleaned. Brush the 
ground thoroughly with a stiff broom; after the top cover 
has been swept away, dig up the soil and turn it under. 
Chicks of the Asiatic, American, and English breeds 
should be hatched prior to the middle of May; those 
of the Mediterranean breeds should be hatched before 
the end of May. Chicks of all kinds will do well if 
hatched after June 1, but they are seldom of much 
value to the poultryman except for table purposes. 




Indian Rxjnner Drake 



238 POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 

June 

In some localities the weather will be very warm 
during the month of June. Shade is an important con- 
sideration at this time, and where it does not exist 
naturall}' it must be supplied artificially. 

During this month less fattening foods than given in 
preceding months will answer, and less corn and 
more wheat and oats should be fed. Dry mash that 
contains but little corn meal should be used. 

The warmer the weather the more green food and pure 
fresh water will be needed for the fowls. No fat meat, 
but some lean meat should be fed to the laying hens 
during this month. 

June is apt to be the last month of the year in which 
chicks are hatched and the eggs from which they are 
hatched should be strong and full of vitality to infuse 
abundant health and vigor into the chicks. If the fowls 
can have free range through the fields and woods at 
this time it will be of benefit to them. 

July 

Cool, shady places and freedom from the irritation of 
overheated houses and insect vermin should be the order 
of the day. 

Poultry must have shade at this time to protect them 
from the glaring rays of the sun, which will scorch 
and blister their backs and make life a burden to them. 

On the farms, all the male fowls should be taken 
away at this time and sold. They are of no further use 
after the hatching season is over. 

Thousands of eggs shipped to market during the heated 
term are destroyed because the eggs begin to hatch. 
This v.ill occur in the egg boxes traveling on trains 
when the temperature is above 100° F. If no males are 
kept with the hens, especially on farms in the southern 
climates, there will be fewer spoiled eggs in transit. 
If all the hens can be turned into a wood or on land 
from which grain has been harvested it will be beneficial 
to them. 



POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 239 

Plenty of fresh, cool water for drinking and a clean 
place for roosting must be provided during the heated 
term. 

Insect vermin, including lice and mites, will throng the 
poultry in the poultry houses during the heated term, 
unless prevented through cleanliness and care. 

July and August are the hardest months of the year 
in the latitude where heat is intense during that period. 
During the hot period fowls should have principally 
wheat and oats — ground oats, wheat bran, and wheat 
middlings as a dry mash. 

Fowls intended for market during fall months should 
be fed liberally during this period with fattening food 
and be sold to market as soon as they are well fattened. 

Shade is an absolute necessity during the heated 
period. If natural shade does not exist artificial shade 
of some kind must be provided. 

Fowls should be in full molt at this time. Hens that 
are overly fat do not molt quickly; hens that are very 
thin in flesh are slow to molt. Fowls in good con- 
dition usually molt the best; those that are too fat 
should have less to eat; those that are thin in flesh 
should be fed liberally; those that molt well should be 
protected from cold drafts and have a good, nourishing 
ration. Fowls that have free range will need only 
proper grain diet. 

ArcusT 

During the heated term of dog days, old and young 
fowls of all kinds, including turkeys and water fowls, 
suffer intensely from heat, and plenty of green food, grit, 
and fresh water should be provided. 

At this time all old fowls, male and female, past 
2 yr. old should be sold. The hens would lay but few 
eggs from now until winter, and as market poultry 
they will probably bring more than at any other time 
for the next 3 mo. 

Continued cleanliness in and about the poultry houses, 
freedom from insect vermin, and free range are the 
necessities at this time. 



240 



POULTRYMAN'S CALENDAR 



September 

September is the turning point in the life of both 
young and old fowls. The old fowls are in molt and 
the young fowls finish their coat of feathers at this 
time, and they must be well cared for and fed. They 
must be built up for the coming winter, and for this 
reason should have more nourishing, more strengthening, 
and more fattening foods than they have had during 
the summer. 

Cold rains, changeable weather, and cool winds may 
be injurious to poultry at this time. Colds, catarrh, and 




Indian Runner Duck Eggs 



roup may injure the fowls. A change from outdoor 
life or from closed coops into unclean poultry buildings 
may do great injury to them. 

All of the buildings should be swept out perfectly 
clean, and all cracks and crevices should be brushed 
and freed absolutely from dust, dirt, and lurking 
vermin. The floors, doors, and windows should be put 
in good repair and the inside of the buildings sprayed 
with some material that is both healthy and a perfect 
insect destroyer and disinfector. Plenty of green food 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 241 

and an increased quantity of animal food should be fed 
at this time. 

September is the beginning of the fall, and at this 
time hens lay but little. Early-hatched pullets should 
begin to lay; these should have special care and feeding. 
All poultry should be fed at this time with reference 
to the winter egg production. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

How to Ascertain the Age of Fowls.— It is difficult for 
an amateur to decide the age of fowls. Experienced 
poultrymen are at times unable to decide from outward 
appearance. But few rules are safe to follow; some of 
them, however, may be depended on. 

The surface of the skin under the wing of a pullet 
will be interspersed or marked with rose-colored veins; 
these are totally absent in hens that are more than 
12 mo. old. The skin of pullets will be fairly well 
covered with long, silky hair; this disappears directly 
after the first molt. 

In an adult hen the skin will be white and free from 
either veins or hairs. If these are absent it can be seen 
at a glance that the fowl, if a hen, must be more than 
1 yr. old. 

The points of the pelvic bones grow much closer 
together in a pullet than in a hen, yet this cannot 
always be depended on, as the cause of the spreading 
of the pelvic bone is prolific egg production. Hens that 
never lay may have the points of the pelvic bones close 
together, even though very old. Usually, however, this 
test can be depended on. 

The scales and skin on the shanks and feet of young 
fowls are usually smooth and tender, and the toenails 
are longer and more pointed than the toenails of older 
fowls. The scales and skin on the shanks and feet of 
older fowls become rough and turn a whitish gray with 
age. Scaly legs and roughness of any kind on the 



242 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



shanks and feet indicate an age of more than a year, 
in all kinds of poultry, including turkeys, ducks, and 
geese. 

The faces of poultry more than 1 yr. old lose their 
smooth finished appearance and become wrinkled and 
drawn. The eyes and eyelids of fowls more than 1 yr. 
old do not have the fresh appearance of young poultry. 

One of the best indications of the age of fowls 
is the appearance of the secondaries. At the conclusion 
of the first complete molt, which occurs when the fowl 
is about 12 mo. old, the secondaries alter in shape and 




show evidence of the dividing line between the young 
and the old fowl. This change of the secondaries cannot 
be readily described. The wings of pullets and of old 
hens must be held alongside of one another and compared 
and studied in order to appreciate the marked change 
that occurs in the shape or form of these feathers. 

Proper Way to Hold a Fowl.— When a fowl is carried 
about or held in the hands it should be held in a position 
that is comJortable for it and cleanly for the person 
holding it. When a fowl is held by the shanks and feet 
with the head hanging down, it suffers considerable 
pain, and if the crop contains water, the water will 



[MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



243 



run out through the gullet and partly strangle the bird. 

One of the most cleanly ways to carr3' a fowl is shown 
in Fig. 1. The thighs are held in the hand with one 
finger in between them to avoid too much pressure on 
the bones, and the breast of the fowl rests on the fore- 
arm of the person holding it. The fowl suffers no 
inconvenience, and there is little danger of the clothing 
of the holder being soiled by voidings from the bird. 

When the fowl is held as shown in Fig. 2, the feet 
of the fowl are free to rub against the clothing of the 
holder, and any filth from it will be liable to drop on 




and smear the clothing of the person holding the bird. 

The rule to observe in carrying a fowl is to carry it 
with the head toward and the tail away from the holder. 

Proper Way to Hold a Squab.— Great care should be 
exercised in picking up squabs, as it is very easy to 
injure them. Squabs should be picked up by gently 
passing the fingers of the right hand under the crop and 
breast, placing the left hand on the back, and sliding 
the bird into the palm ot the right hand without grip- 
ping it with the fingers. Care should be taken to see 
that the crop of the bird is not injured. When the 



244 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 




Fig. 3 



crop of a squab is full it is heavy and apt to be injured 
if held tightly. It is not necessary to close the fingers 

about the squab un- 
less it becomes rest- 
less and tries to get 
away. When a squab 
tries to escape from 
the hand, the fingers 
should be closed 
gently about the body 
in such a way as to 
prevent the wings 
from being flapped 
about. The proper way in which a sqviab should be held 
is shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 4 is shown a squab being 
held by the fingers. This is the improper way to hold 
squabs under ordinary circumstances, because there is a 
tendency to squeeze them too tightly, but it is sometimes 
necessary to hold very lively squabs in this manner. 

Proper Way of Catching and Holding Pigeons.— Catch- 
ing and holding pigeons should be done with care, or 
the birds may be 
injured. Pigeons 
should never be 
roughly handled or 
held by the feet or 
by the wings alone. 
The proper method 
of holding a pigeon 
is shown in Fig. 5. 
As shown, the hand 
is placed around the 
rear portion of the 
body, the wings and tail are held gently but firmly by the 
hand, and the shanks are held between two fingers to 
prevent them from moving. When pigeons are held in 
this way they will be comfortable and will not struggle to 
free themselves, hence the wing and tail feathers of the 
birds will not become broken, and females will not be 




Fig. 4 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 245 

injured during their egg-laying period. If female pigeons 
are chased in a pigeon house and roughly grabbed with 
the hands or caught in a dip net, they are very likely to 
be injured, especially if this is done during their egg- 
laying period. In pigeon houses that are so built that the 
birds are able to roost high overhead, no attempt should 
be made to catch them except at night, and then a box 
or a step ladder should always be used to stand on. 




Fig. 5 

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL 

Following are the legal weights per bushel for various 
commodities. Those listed in tabular form, shown on 
pages 246 to 253, have been widely adopted, the others 
have been adopted only in the states mentioned. 

Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 lb. (Md. and Okla.). 

Beggar weed seed, 62 lb. (Fla.). 

Bermuda grass seed, 40 lb." (Okla.). 

Blackberries, 30 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.) ; dried, 28 lb. 
(Tenn.). 

Blueberries, 42 lb. (Minn.). 

Bromus inermus, 14 lb. (N. Dak.). 

Bur clover, in hulls, 8 lb. (N. C). 

Cabbage, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Canary seed, 60 lb. (Tenn.); 50 lb. (Iowa). 

Cantaloup melon, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Castor seed. 50 lb. (Md.). 

{Continued on page 255) 

17 



246 



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254 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

Notes Relating to Preceding Table 



iNot defined. 
2Small white beans, 60 lb. 
^Green apples. [wurzels. 

*Sugar beets and mangel 
^Shelled beans, 60 lb.; vel- 
vet beans, 78 lb. 
eWhite beans. 
'Wheat bran. 

sQreen unshelled beans, 56 lb. 
^English blue-grass seed, 

22 lb.; native blue-grass 

seed, 14 lb. 
T^Also castor seed. 
I'Soybeans, 58 lb. [30 lb. 

1- Green unshelled beans, 
"Soybeans. 
"Free from hulls. 
isCommercially dry, for all 

hard woods. 
^^Fifteen lb. commercially dry, 

for all soft woods. 
"Standard weight in borough 

of Greensburg. 
isDried beans. 
"Red and white. 
2(>Corn in ear, 70 lb. until 

Dec. 1 next after grown; 

68 lb. thereafter. 
2>Sweet corn. 
220n the cob. 
23indian corn In ear. 
2<'Jnwashed plastering hair, 

8 lb.; washed plastering 

hair, 4 lb. 
25 Corn in ear, from Nov. 1 

to May 1 following, 70 lb.; 

6S lb. from May 1 to Nov. 1. 
28Indian-com meal. 
^'Cracked corn. 
28Shelled. 
^Free from hulls. 
S'Standard weight bu. corn 

meal, bolted or unbolted, 

48 1b. 
'^Except the seed of long 

staple cotton, of which the 

weight shall be 42 lb. 



S2Green unshelled corn, 100 lb. 

33Green cucumbers. 

34See also "Popcorn," "Indian 

corn,' and * Kafir corn.". 
'^Green peaches. 
2«Green pears. 
37 Malt rye. 

38Top sets; bottom sets, 32.1b. 
3»Shelled, 55 lb. 
^Shelled, dry. 
♦iStrike measure. 
<2Bottom onion sets. 
^German and American. 
<<Shelled. 
<5Peaches (peeled); unpeeled, 

32 1b. 
^^Cowpeas. 

*'Roasted; green, 22 lb. 
*8Not stated whether peeled 

or unpeeled. 
<9Top onion sets. 
^Including split peas. 
"In the ear. 
62Slaked lime, 40 lb. 
63German, Missouri, and Ten- 
nessee millet seeds. 
5<Matured onions. 
"Bottom onion sets, 32 lb. 
B^Matured. 
8'Matured pears, 56 lb.; dried 

pears, 26 lb. 
*8Black-eyed peas. 
^^Barley malt. 
«>Includes Rice com. 
6iRice com. 

s^Sorghum saccharatum seed. 
63Red top grass seed (chaff); 

fancy, 32 lb. 
«Seed. 

«5Irish potatoes. 
66Free from hulls. 
e^Ground salt, 70 lb. 
esindia wheat, 46 lb. 
^^In some states herd's grass 

is a synonym for timothy; 

in other states for red 

top. 



The states of Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming have 
no standard for bushel weights. 



_ \ 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 233 

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL 

{Continued from page 245) 

Cherries, 40 lb. (Iowa) ; with stems, 56 lb. (Tenn.) ; 
without stems, 64 lb. (Tenn.). 

Chufa, 54 lb. (Fla.). 

Cotton seed, staple, 42 lb. (S. C). 

Currants, 40 lb. (Iowa and Minn.). 

Feed, 50 lb. (Mass.). 

Fescue, seed of all the, except the Tall and Meadow 
fescue, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Fescue seed, Tall and Meadow, 24 lb. (N. C). 

Grapes, 40 lb. (Iowa) ; with stems, 48 lb. (Tenn.) ; with- 
out stems, 60 lb., (Tenn.). 

Guavas, 54 lb. (Fla.). 

Hominy, 60 lb. (Ohio); 62 lb. (Tenn.). 

Horseradish, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 lb. (Tenn.). 

Japan clover in hulls, 25 lb. (N. C). 

Johnson grass, 28 lb. (Ark.) ; 25 lb. (N. C.). 

Kale, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Land plaster, 100 lb.. (Tenn.). 

Lentils, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Lucerne, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Lupines, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Meadow seed, tall, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Meal (?), 46 lb. (Ala.); unbolted, 48 lb. (Ala.). 

Middlings, fine, 40 lb. (Ind.); coarse middlings, 30 lb. 
(Ind.). 

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 lb. (Mass. and N. H.). 

Mustard, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Mustard seed, 58 lb. (N. C). 

Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Plums, 40 lb. (Fla.); 64 lb. (Tenn.); dried, 28 lb. 
(Mich.). 

Prunes, dried, 28 lb. (Idaho); green, 45 lb. (Idaho). 

Radish seed, 50 lb. (Iowa). 

Raspberries, 32 lb. (Iowa and Kan.); 48 lb. (Tenn.), 

Rhubarb, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 



256 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Sage, 4 lb. (Tenn.). 

Salads, 30 lb. (Tenn.), 

Sand, 130 lb. (Iowa). 

Seed of brome grasses, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Spinach, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Strawberries, 32 lb. (Iowa); 48 lb. (Tenn.). 

Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 lb. (N. J.). 

Sunflower seed, 24 lb. (N. C). 

Teosinte, 59 lb. (N. C). 

Velvet grass seed, 7 lb. (Tenn.). 

Vetches, 60 lb. (N. C). 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 
USED BY POULTRYMEN 

A clear understanding of the meaning of the technical 
terms used in the poultry world is necessary before 
any person can judge fowls according to Standard re- 
quirements or select them for breeding purposes or the 
show pen or even converse intelligently on the subject 
of poultry. 

In order to impart a clear understanding of the terms 
applied to the different parts of a fowl, a profile view 
of one is shown in Fig. 1, with the different parts 
numbered. Following this will be found a list of the 
names of the numbered parts. Farther on is a list of 
technical terms and expressions used by poultrymen. 
Some of the terms are peculiar to England and some to 
certain parts of the United States, but the meaning of 
each is fully explained and many are made clear by 
illustrations. 

Abdomen. — The part of the body of a fowl that contains 
the viscera. See 32, Fig. 1. 

Albino. — A fowl that is pure white in all parts except 
the eyes, due to the absence of coloring pigment; a sport 
from black or colored fowls. 




Fig. 1 



Names of Numbered Parts 



Crest 
Comb 
Eye 

Feathers covering the 

ear 
Ear lobe 
Muff 
Wattles 
Beard 
Beak 
Face 
Hackle 
Neck 
Breast 

Breastbone, or keel 
Thigh 

Vulture hock 
Hock joint 
Shank 
Third toe 
Middle toe 



21, Fourth toe 
23, Fifth toe 

23, Spur 

24, Foot 

25, Shank and toe feath- 

ering 

26, Back 

27, Saddle 

28, Sickles 

29, Lesser sickles 
SO, Tail coverts 

31, Main tail 

32, Abdomen 

33, Wing bow 

34, Shoulder 

35, Wing bar 

36, Wing bay, or second- 

ary feathers 

37, Primary, or flight, 

feathers 

38, Primary coverts 



257 



258 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 




Fig. 2 



Amateur. — A person not well informed about the art of 
poultry raising; a beginner; a novice. 

Antler Comb. — A comb composed of two small prongs 
somewhat resembling antlers; a V-shaped comb; com- 
mon in Polish, La Fleche, and some 
strains of Houdans. Fig. 2. 
A. O. C. — Any other color. 
A. O. V. — Any other variety. 
Atavism. — Recurrence to an an- 
cestral type or to a deformity or 
disease after its disappearance for 
several generations; reversion. 

Band. — (1) A stripe or marking 
of any kind at the end of or across 
a feather. (2) A band of metal or 
other material, usually stamped with numbers or letters, or 
colored, for attaching to the shank of a fowl so that it 
can be identified. 

Bantam.— A dwarf, or pigmy, fowl, usually about one- 
fifth the size of a large fowl of the variety to which it 
corresponds in every particular except size. 

Barb. — One of the side branches of a feather, which 
collectively make up the web and flufif. See feather. 
Barring. — Bands of alternate colors that ^^^ 

extend across a feather. Fig. 3. 

Barred to the Skin. — An expression ap- 
plied to fowls whose feathers are barred 
from the tip to the end of the fluff, as in 
Barred Plymouth Rocks. 

Bay. — A reddish-brown color, approach- 
ing chestnut; also used to designate eyes in 
fowls that have an approach to blood-red 
color. 

Beak. — As used by poultrymen, the beak 
is the bony formation extending from the 
front of the head of chickens and turkeys; 
it consists of the upper and lower mandibles. See p, 
Fig. 1. The corresponding part of water fowls is called 
the bill. 





GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 259 

Bean.-^A growth, resembling a thumbnail, on the point 
of the upper mandible of the bill of a duck, as shown at 
a. Fig. 4. A like growth of a 
smaller size is found on the. bill of 
a goose. 

Beard.— (1) A tuft of feathers 
under the beak and about the throat 
of such fowls as Polish, Houdans, 
etc. See 8, Fig. 1. (2) A tuft of 
hair growing on the breast of turkeys. 

Beefy. — ^A term applied to coarse, overgrown combs; 
such combs are more commonly found on Mediterranean 
fowls than on those of other varieties. 

Beetle Brows. — See brows. 

Bib. — The English name for beard. 

Bill. — The mandibles of water fowls, which correspond 
to the beak in other domestic fowls. 

Bird. — Fowl was the term formerly applied to all 
winged creatures; modern usage restricts the name fowl 
to the larger domesticated fowls and designates the 
smaller wild fowls as birds. However, the term bird 
is frequently indiscriminatingly used instead of the 
term fowl. 

Blade. — The rear part of a single comb, generally called 
the heel. See b, Fig. 25. 

Blocky.—A term applied to a fowl that is of heavy and 
square build; said of a fowl that is broad, or wide, 
between the thighs. Compare with cobby, an English 
term that expresses the sam.e meaning. 

Bloom. — The gloss, sheen, or finish on the plumage of 
fowls. 

Body. — Fanciers usually apply the term body to the 
trunk of a fowl only. 

Booted. — Fowls that are feathered on the shanks and 
toes are said to be booted. 

Bouquet Crest. — ^A crest that stands up from the head 
and to some extent resembles a bouquet of flowers ^ 
found on crested ducks. At one time, a bad defect m 
Polish fowls. 



260 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Brassiness.—A term applied to a yellow or yellowish 
tint commonly found in the feathers of white fowls and 
sometimes in the feathers of dark-plumaged fowls. 

Breast.— (1) A term applied to that part of the front of 
the body of live fowls that extends from the throat to 
the point of the breastbone. See 13, Fig. 1. (2) The term 
is applied also to the meat on both sides of the breast- 
bone of fowls prepared for the table. 

Breed.— A family of fowls all of which are of the same 
distinctive shape. A breed may include a number of 
varieties, the fowls of all the varieties having the same 
shape but being distinguished by different plumage 
colors and markings. 

Breeding Down. — A term applied to the process of 
producing small, or bantam, fowls from larger fowls by 
selecting and breeding the smallest fowls obtainable — a 
process usually involving breeding through a number of 
generations. 

Brick Color. — A reddish-brown color occasionally found 
on fowls of black-red varieties. 
Broken Colored. — See mottled and spangled. 
Brood. — A number of chicks that are mothered by one 
hen or kept in one brooder. 

Broody.— When a hen shows a desire to sit, that is, to 

hatch eggs, she is said to be broody. 

Brows.— The projection of the skull over the eyes of a 

fowl, as in Asiatic and Malay fowls ;- 

termed beetle brows in England. Fig. 5. 

Cap. — The upper part of a fowl's skull 

or comb; a term used in England. 

Cape. — The feathers between the 
shoulders and about the neck under- 
neath the hackle. 
Fig. 5 Capon. — A castrated cock or cockerel; 

that is, a male from which the reproductive organs have 
been removed; a female from which the reproductive or- 
gans have been removed is called a poulard. 

Carriage.— The general appearance, pose, or bearing of a 
fowl; the way in which a fowl carries itself when walking. 





GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 261 

Caruncles. — Irregular growths of flesh such as occur on 
the head and neck of turkeys and Muscovy ducks. Fig. 6. 

Caninculated. — Covered with carun- 
cles. 

Castrate. — To remove the testicles, the 
organs of reproduction, from a male 
fowl. 

Cavernous. — Said of nostrils that are 
prominent and deeply hollowed. Such 
nostrils are found on crested fowls. 
Fig. 7. 

Chain Armor. — Faulty lacing on the 
claret-colored breast of a Rouen drake. ■^^*^- " 

Chick.— OnQ of the newly hatched young of fowls or 
birds. 
Chicken. — Specifically, a fowl less than 1 yr. old; com- 
monly, a fowl of any age. 

Cinnamon Color. — A dark reddish 
buff, formerly admissible on one va- 
'Vj^riety of Cochins. 

Claret Color. — Descriptive of the breast 
color of a Rouen drake. 

Clean Legged. — A term used in de- 
scribing a fowl that has no feathers on 
its shanks or toes. 
Close Feathered. — See tight feathered. 
Cloudy. — ^A term applied to plumage that has irregular 
markings. See mossiness. 

Clutch. — The number of eggs a domestic fowl incubates,, 
or sits on, at one time, usually from 11 to 15. See 
sitting. 
Coat. — The plumage of a fowl taken as a whole. 
Coh. — A male swan. 

Cobby.— A term applied in England to a fowl that is 
thick set, heavily built, and round in form. See blocky. 
Cock. — A male fowl more than 1 yr.' old; the term is 
commonly applied to pit game cocks of any age. 

Cockerel.— A male fowl less than 1 yr. old. The practice 
in the show room is to allow males to be shown as 
18 




262 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

cockerels during the entire show season that follows 
their hatching. Compare with pullet. 

Cockerel Bred. — Bred in line from a mating made ex- 
pressly for producing cockerels for exhibition. Both 
males and females from such matings are said to be 
cockerel bred. Compare with pullet bred. 

Collar.— A white ring around the neck, as in Rouen 
ducks and in pheasants. 

Color. — A term applied to any one of the many hues 
that may be found on the feathers or on any other part 
of the body of a fowl. This term is used also in 
describing the coloring of the entire plumage. A fowl 
is said to have good color when each of its colors is 
of the proper tint and is found in its proper place, and 
to have bad color when the reverse is true. 

Comb. — The fleshy growth on the 
top of the head of a fowl. See 2, 
Fig. 1, and Figs. 2, 5, 16, 20, 22, 25, 
and 30. 

Comb Over. — An expression for 
lopped comb; used in England. 
Figs. 8 and 24. 

Comparison Judging. — Judging 
fowls by comparing them with one 
another, and without applying a 
score card. 
Concave Sweep. — The continuous 
curve of the back from the shoulder to the tail; required 
in some breeds. 

Condition. — The state of the health and plumage of a 
fowl; sometim_es applied only to the finish, or appear- 
ance, of the plumage. 

Conditioning. — The process of preparing a fowl for the 
show room. 

Coverts. — Feathers that grow about the tail; also the 
secondary quill feathers. See 50 and 38, Fig. 1, and 
wing and tail coverts and hangers. 

Cradle Comb. — A term formerly applied to the Wyan- 
dotte comb; at present little used. Same as rocker comb. 





GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 263 

Creaminess.—A terra descriptive of white feathers that 
are tinged with a slight yellow or cream color. 

Crest.— A tuft of feathers on top of the head. Figs. 
9 and 16. 

Crop. — An enlarged part of the gul- 
let, or pouch, in which food is stored 
and softened prior to passing into the 
gizzard. 

Crop Bound. — ^A term applied to an 
unnatural condition of the crop, in 
which that organ is stopped up and 
food is prevented from passing 
through it. ^^^- ^ 

Cross. — A mating of fowls of different breeds. 

Cross-Bred. — The offspring from two fowls of different 
breeds; as from mating a Plymouth Rock and a Rhode 
Island Red. 

Curl Feather.— One of the set of curled feathers near 
the base of the back of a male duck. 

Curve. — Any arched or concave line on the body of a 
fowl, such as the curve of the back, the curve formed by 
the flowing tail feathers, or the arched shape of the 
neck in water fowls. 

Cushion.— A raised mass of plumage due to an excessive 
development of soft feathers about the tail of Cochins 
and some other fowls. 

Cushion Comb. — The name applied in England to the 
comb of the Silky; a circular cushion of flesh with a 
number of small protuberances on it. Same as straw- 
berry comb. 

Cut.— A deduction made from the score of a fowl; as 
a cut of 2 points. 

Cygnet.— A young swan. 

Daw Eyed.— A term used at one time to describe game 
fowls that had peculiar eyes resembling those of a 
jackdaw, which were of a pearl color; pigeons with eyes 
of the same kind are said to be pearl eyed. 

Deaf-Ear.— The ear lobe. 

Debarred.~Ba.Tred from competition. 



264 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Deep Bodied.— Said of fowls that have a good depth 
of body from the top of the back to the lower side of 
the breastbone. 

Defect. — Any blemish, imperfection, fault, or lack of 
some feature or quality. 

Dewlap.— A growth of loose skin below the beak or 
bill, as in Brahmas and water fowls. Fig. 5. 

Diamond. — ^An expression formerly used in place of 
wing bay. See j6, Fig. 1. 

Dished. — When hollows or depressions appear in the bill 
of a water fowl, it is said to be dished. See h, Fig. 4. 
Disqualification. — A defect that will debar a fowl from 
competition. 

Disqualified. — Condemned; unfit for exhibition. 
Double Comb.— A term formerly applied to all combs 
e'kcept the single comb. 
Double Lacing. — A double ring or penciling about the 
outer edge of a feather. Fig. 10. See sup- 
plementary lacing. 

Double Mating. — A system of mating in 
which males fit for exhibition are produced 
from one pair of breeding fowls, and fe- 
males fit for exhibition are produced from 
another pair. 

Down. — (1) The first downy covering of 

young chicks. (2) The soft cottonlike part 

of a feather below the web. See b, Fig. 12. 

(3) A mosslike growth between the toes. 

Fig. 10 Drake.— A male duck. 

Dubbing.— The cutting off of the comb, wattles, and 

€ar lobes of game fowls. 

Duck. — A species of water fowl, including both sexes; 
also, a female of the species, as distinguished from the 
male. 
Duckling. — ^A young duck. 
Duck Foot. — See web foot. 

Duck Footed. — A fowl is said to be duck footed when 
the back toe is carried close to the other toes, instead 
of being well spread out behind. Fig. 11. 




GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 



265 




Fig. 11 



Ear Lobe.— The fleshy growth below the ear; this may 
be red, white, or other color, according to the variety. 
Same as deaf -ear. See 5j Fig- 1- 

Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs that are 
suitable for incubation. 

Exhibition Fowls. — A fowl suitable 
for exhibition in a show room. 

Face. — On a fowl, the part of the 
head about the eyes that is bare of 
feathers. 

Faking. — A term equivalent in mean- 
ing to deceiving; it is in frequent use 
by poultrymen. Faking consists in re- 
moving or dyeing objectionable feathers, in coloring 
shanks and feet, in removing side sprigs, or in the 
use of other unfair means to win a prize in a show 
room. 
Fancier.— A breeder of poultry, pigeons, or pet stock. 
Fancy. — ^A lax term for fanciers collectively. 
Feather. — One of the appendages peculiar to and grow- 
ing out of the skin of a fowl or a bird, collectively 
forming the plumage. Fig. 12. A 
feather is commonly composed of the 
following principal parts: weh a, in 
which the barbs are stuck together, 
forming a thin, smooth sheet; the 
fltiff, or down b, in which the barbs are 
not united; the shaft, quill, or barrel, 
which is composed of a lower hollow 
and tubular part c, and an upper part 
d, which is filled with pith. 

Feather Cell. — The cell in the body 
from which a feather grows. 

Feather Legged. — Said of fowls that 
have feathers growing on the sides of 
the shanks and toes; booted. See 2$, Fig. 1. 

Fillers.— The small feathers that grow between the 
main tail feathers. 
Finish. — Gloss on plumage. 




Fig. 



266 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

First-Cross Fowls.— Fowls resulting from the first cross- 
ing of standard-bred males and females of different 
breeds. 

Flat Shin.— A flat part on the shank of a game fowl. 

Flight Coverts. — Short feathers that grow at the base 
of the flight feathers and partly cover them. See $8, 
Fig. 1. 

Flights, or Flight Feathers. — The primary feathers on 
the wing of a fowl. See ST, Fig. 1. 

Flow. — Said of feathers that hang loosely or sweep 
ingly. 

Fluff. — (1) The downy or lower part of a feather; see 
b. Fig. 12. (2) The profuse soft feathering about the 
thighs and abdomen. See 32, Fig, 1. 

Fluffing. — The act of bending or breaking the shafts 
and quills of the feathers in the fluff, cushion, and tail 
feathering of Asiatic Bantam and other Asiatic fowls, 
to build them out into unnatural size. This constitutes 
faking. 

Folded Comb. — A comb that falls over to one side and 
folds back, forming a loop. 

Foreign Color. — Any color found on a fowl that is not 
characteristic of or standard for the variety to which 
the fowl belongs. 

Form. — As applied to fowls in the show room, form 
refers to their condition and finish. 

Foul Feathers. — Feathers that are marked with foreign 
color. 

Fowl. — A domestic cock, hen, cockerel, or pullet. 

Foxy. — See rusty. 

Frizzle Feathers. — Feathers that are crinkled or curled. 

Frosting. — Irregular markings or lacing of a light 
color. Similar markings of a dark color give the appear- 
ance of mossiness. 

Furnished.— A fowl is said to be furnished when it has 
a complete growth of tail, hackle, and saddle plumage, 
and a. well-developed comb and other head points. 
Furnishings. — Same as hangers. 

Gaff. — A steel spur. 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 267 

Gamy.— Like a game fowl; full of fight. 

Gay.— A fowl is said to be gay when it has spangled, 
splashed, or colored plumage with an excessive amount 
of white on it. 

Gills. — An improper name for the wattles. 

Gloss. — The luster on the surface of feathers. 

Gobbler. — A male turkey. 

Gray.— A color produced by a mixture of black and 
white; it is of different shades, according to the pro- 
portions of black and white, as in the plumage of Dark 
Brahmas and Silver-Gray Dorkings. 

Ground Color. — In fowls, the main, or principal, color 
in the plumage; for example, in a Buff Laced Polish 
fowl, the buff is the ground color. 

Gullet. — The opening through which food passes. 

Gypsy Color. — Purple color, as found on the face of some 
game fowls; also called mulberry color. 

Hackle Feathers. — The long, flowing feathers that grow 
on the neck of a fowl; more plentiful in males than in 
females. See ii, Fig. 1. See hackle. 

Hangers, — ^An improper name for saddle feathers. 

Hatch. — (1) To produce young from, that is, to cause 
young to develop in and come forth from an egg by 
either natural or artificial incubation. (2) A brood 
hatched at one sitting or one incubation. 

Hard Feathers. — Firm, close feathering, such as is found 
on game fowls. 

Hen.— A mature female domestic fowl. 

Hen Feathered. — Said of a male fowl with a tail like 
a hen, as in the males of Sebrights and some varieties 
of game fowls. 

Hen Tailed. — Same as hen feathered. 

Henny.—A term applied to a male fowl, usually a game, 
that has tail or other plumage resembling that of a 
hen. 

High-in-Back. — A term used in England to describe 
hump or roach back. 

Hock.— The joint between the thigh and the shank. See 
17, Fig. 1. 



268 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 




Fig. 13 



Hollowed Place in Comb. — A depression in the comb of 

a fowl; same as a thumb mark. Fig. 24. 

Hood. — Neck feathers that curve forwards over the head. 

Horn Comb. — Same as antler comb and V-shaped comb. 

Horseshoe Lacing. — Lacing forming a 

horseshoe about the tip of a feather. 

Fig. 13. 

Hump Back. — A fowl with a hump back 
is one that has a knob, lump, or prominence 
on the back. 

Hybrid. — ^The offspring from two birds of 
different species; as from mating a gold- 
finch with a canary, or a turkey with a 
guinea. 

Ideal. — Of a perfection that is seldom 
realized. 

Inbred Fowl. — An offspring from closely related fowls. 
Inbreeding. — Breeding, or following a course of breed- 
ing, from nearly related fowls. 
Incubate. — See hatch and sit. 

Irregular Lacing. — Incomplete or imperfect lacing about 
the edge of a feather. 

Jaw. — In a fowl, the jaw is that part 
of the head that supports the upper and 
lower mandibles. 

Keel. — (1) The lower edge of the 
breastbone. (2) The loose flesh and 
feathers hanging below the breast in 
ducks and other poultry. 

Knee Joint. — Same as hock joint. See 
17, Fig. 1. 

Knob. — The protuberance on a goose 
at the juncture of the head and the bill. FiG. 14 

Knock Kneed. — A malformation of the legs of a fowl, 
in which the hock joints come close together instead of 
being well apart as they should be. Fig. 14. 

Lacing. — The edging along the margin of a feather; it 
is usually darker m color than the body of the feather. 
Fig. lb. 




GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 



269 





Fig. 15 



Fig. 16 



Leader. — The spike, or heel, on a rose comb — the part 
that extends to the rear. See a, Fig. 22. 

Leaf Comb. — A comb consisting of two small sections, 
each shaped like a leaf. Fig. 16. 

Leggy. — A fowl is said to 
be leggy when it has too 
great length in legs. 

Leg and Toe Feathering. 
The feathering on both the 
shanks and feet; booting. 
See 25, Fig. 1. 

Lesser Sickles. — The 
smaller tail feathers next to 
the full, flowing sickles. See 
2p, Fig. 1. 

Line Breeding. — Breeding, or following a course of 
breeding, from a limited number of original fowls. In 
line breeding the fowls mated are not so closely related 
as those mated in inbreeding. Line breeding is really 
a modified form of inbreeding. 

Loop. — A double fold in the comb, as in a Minorca 
female. 

Lopped Comb.— A comb that falls over on either side. 
Same as comb over. Figs. 8 and 24. 

Low Built. — Said of a fowl that is very short in the 
legs and hence carries its body close to the ground. 
Lump Comb. — Same as strawberry comb. 
Made Form. — The form that may be produced in a fowl 
by training. 

Main Tail Feathers. — The stiff feathers of the tail under 
and between the sickles and coverts. See 31, Fig. 1. 

Mandibles. — The horny upper and lower parts of the 
beak or bill. 

Marbled.— A term used to describe ticked or laced 
feathers on the breast of Pyle Game cocks. 

Markings. — Striping, lacing, barring, or marks of any 
kind on the plumage. 

Mazarine. — Deep-blue or purplish markings across a 
black feather. 



270 



GLOSSARY OF TECHMCAL TERMS 




Fig. 17 






Fig. 18 



Mealy.— A term used to describe plumage that should 
be one solid color but is covered with irregular dots of 
mixed or faulty color. 

Moon.— A rounded spot ot color tipping the feathers 
of fowls of some varieties. 

Mossiness. — An effect produced by irregular dark mark- 
ings. Fig. 17. See frosting. 

Molt.—(l) To cast off or jgn^ 

shed the feathers of fowls. 
(2) The act or process of 
molting. (3) The season or 
period of molting. 

Mottled. — Marked with 
spots or blotches ot different 
colors. 

Mulberry Color. — See gypsy 
color. 

Muff, Muffle, Muffling.— A 
growth of feathers on either 
side of the head, usually seen on bearded fowls, and 
very marked in Faverolles. See 6, Fig. 1. 

Natural Form.— The natural appearance of a fowl with- 
out training. 
Non-Sitter.^A fowl that does not incubate eggs. 

Novice. — A beginner; an inexperienced 
person. 

Open Barring. — Barring in which the bars 
are wide apart. Fig. 18. 

Open Lacing. — Narrow lacing about the 
edge of a feather and forming a ring 
around a spot of another color, giving the 
feather the appearance of having a large 
open center. Fig. 19. 

Overhang. — A term used by poultrymen 

to describe the overhanging skull as found 

Fig. 19 j^^ Aseel Game, Malay Game, and Brahma 

fowls. Some pigeons, also, have the same kind of a 

projection on the skull. 





GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 271 

Overlap.— To lie partly over; said of the colors on 
plumage when they meet on a ragged edge, giving the 
appearance of one color overlapping another. 

Parti-Colored.— Oi several colors, like the Light Brahma, 
or Houdan. 

Pea Comb. — ^A small, low comb divided lengthwise into 
three parts, and having the appearance of three small 
single combs placed side by side, as on 
the Brahma and Aseel. Figs. 5 and 20. 
Pearl Eyed. — See daw eyed. 
Pen. — (1) An enclosure. (2) A fe- 
male swan. 

Penciling. — Narrow lines or markings. 
The term penciling is applied to several 
kinds of markings on poultry: (1) The 
bars on the feathers of Penciled Ham- 
burgs. (2) The concentric lines that follow the outline of 
the feather in Dark Brahmas and Partridge Cochins. Fig. 
21. (3) The fine gray markings on Rouen drakes. (4) 
The stippling as found on Leghorns and Black-Breasted 
Red Game females. 

Pen Manners. — The behavior of fowls in 
pens in the show room. 

Pen of Fowls. — In the show room, a pen 
of one male and four females. 

Peppered. — Plumage is said to be pep- 
pered when it is dotted with spots. 

Pile. — The spelling used in England for 

Pyle. 

Pinion. — (1) The outermost section of 

tiG. 21 ^jjg w^ing of a bird, bearing the pinion 

feathers. (2) To cut off the outer part of a bird's wing 

that bears a considerable proportion of the feathers used 

in flying, in order to prevent flying. 

Pit. — An enclosed space in which fowls are pitted 
against each other; hence, a fighting place for fowls. 
Plumage. — The feathers and down. 

Point.— One of the tapering, sharp-ended serrations of 
the upper part of a single comb. See a, Fig. 25. 




272 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Poulard.— A female fowl, usually a pullet, in which the 
egg-producing organs have been destroyed. 

Poult. — A young turkey. 

Poultry.— All domestic fowls. 

Prepotency. — The superiority of one parent Over the 
other in transmitting characters to the offspring; that 
is, in stamping its individuality on the offspring. 

Primaries. — The ilight feathers. See J7, Fig. 1. 

Producer.— A fowl that produces offspring better than 
itself. 

Pullet.— A female fowl less than a year old. Show- 
room practice allows a fowl to be exhibited as a pullet 
during the entire show season that follows the hatching. 

Pullet Bred. — Bred in line from a mating made ex- 
pressly for producing pullets for exhibition. Both males 
and females from such matings are called pullet bred. 
Compare with cockerel bred. 

Pure Bred. — Fowls that have no alien blood in them 
are said to be pure bred. 

Purply.— The effect produced by purple ^^^TS across a 
black feather. 

Quill.— See feather, and c, Fig. 12. 

Quill Bound. — A condition in which the feather is 
retained in its sheath, instead of the sheath cracking 
and falling off. 

Racy. — A fowl that is slender, trim, active, alert, or 
tight feathered is said to be racy. 

Reachy.—Said of fowls that have an upright carriage 
and are tall, such as game fowls. 

Ribbon. — The bright-blue band across the wings of 
Rouen and other ducks. 

Roach Back.— A back with a hump; sane as hump 
back. 

Rocker Comb.— A term formerly applied to the Wyan- 
dotte comb; same as cradle comb. 

Rooster. — Common name for a cock or a cockerel. 

Rose Comb. — A broad, level comb, wide in front, taper- 
ing to a spike, or point, in the rear, and covered on 




GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 273 

the top with small projections, or points, as in Hamburgs 
and Rose-Comb Bantams. Fig. 22. At 
a is shown the spike. 

Rosy Wings. — Wings of Pyle females, 
which are marked with salmon color; 
wings of the same color were formerly 
called foxy colored. 

Ruff. — Same as muff. 

Rusty Color. — The reddish-brown 
shadings on the outside of the wings ^^^- ^2 

of Black-Breasted Red Game and Brown Leghorn fe- 
males. In England, the same shading is called foxy. 

Saddle. — That portion of the back of a male fowl 
between the middle of the back and the base of the tail. 

Saddle Feathers. — The flowing feathers growing from the 
saddle of a fowl. 

Saddle Hackles. — The long, flowing feathers that grow 
from the saddle of a male and hang down on both sides 
of the body; also called saddle hangers and saddle 
feathers. See 2^, Fig. 1. 

Salmon. — A reddish or pinkish orange color, like that 
found on the breast of Red Pyle Game females and 
Brown Leghorn females. 

Scales. — Thin, horny growths covering the shanks and 
feet. 

Scaly Leg. — ^A diseased condition of the shanks and 
feet, caused by the scaly-leg mite. 

Secondaries. — The long quill feathers of the wings that 
grow on the second joint or next to and above the 
primaries. See 56, Fig. 1. 

Section. — ^A distinctly defined part of a standard-bred 
fowl. 

Self-Color. — ^A uniform color. 

Serrated. — Notched along the edge like a saw. 

Serration. — One of the points of a single comb. See 
a. Fig. 25. 

Shaft.— See feather, and d, Fig. 12. 

Shafty. — A term describing a dark-colored feather with 
a light shaft. Fig. 23. 



274 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 




Fig, 23 



Shank.— That part of the leg between the toes and the 
hock joint. See j8, Fig. 1. 

Shank Feathers. — Feathers growing on 
the outside edge of the shank. See 25, 
Fig. 1. 

Shank Line. — A line that would be 
formed by drawing a straight line along the 
rear edge of the shank upwards through the 
body of a fowl. 

Sheath. — The covering over a new 
feather; it splits and falls off as the feather 
develops. 
Sheen. — The glistening brightness, or 
gloss, on plumage. 

Shoulder. — The front or upper part of the wing; it is 
round or bow shaped and is hidden in fowls of some 
breeds by the breast plumage and hackle; in game fowls 
it stands out prominently. See 34, Fig. 1. 
Shoulder Butt. — Same as shoulder. 

Show-Room Form. — The form that a fowl has in the 
show room. 

Sickles. — The top pair of curved 
feathers in the tail of male fowls. One 
or two pairs similar to these, but below 
them, are called the lesser sickles. See 
28 and 29, Fig. 1. 
Side Spike. — Same as side sprig. 
Side Sprig. — ^An extra point, or 
growth, at the side or near the end o£ 
a single comb. Fig. 24. 

Silvery. — A term applied to the ap- 
pearance of the shoulders of barred 
fowls that are deficient in barring 
and that have light, or silvery mark- 
ings on these parts instead of the customary barring. 
Single Color. — Same as whole color. 

Single Comb. — A thin, serrated, fleshy growth on the 
top of the head of a fowl, as in Plymouth Rocks and 




Fig. 24 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 



275 




Fig. 25 



Leghorns. Fig. 25. At a is one of the serrations, or 
points; at b, the blade. 

Single Mating. — A mating from which both males and 
females fit for exhibition are produced 
from a single pair of breeding fowls. 
See double mating. 

Sit. — To cover eggs for hatching; 
incubate. 

Sitters. — Fowls that sit on and incu- 
bate eggs. The sitting proclivities are 
stronger in some breeds than in others. 
Fowls in which the sitting proclivities 
are weak are said to be non-sitters. 

Sitting. — The act of sitting to incu- 
bate eggs; also, the number of eggs for a sitting, usually 
from 11 to 15. See clutch. 

Slipped Wing. — A wing in which the 
3ight, or secondary, wing feathers hang 
loose or out of place. Fig. 26. 

Smooth Legs. — Legs that have no 

feathers, stubs, or down on the shanks. 

Smut. — A term applied to dark color 

overlying any section of a fowl. 

Fig. 26 Solid Color. — Of one uniform color 

throughout; self-color. 

Spangle. — A dark marking at the point, 
or tip, of a feather. Fig. 27. 

Spike. — The rear point on a rose comb; 
also sometimes called a leader. See a, 
Fig. 22. 

Splashed Feathers. — Feathers in which 
there is an uneven mixture of color. 

Split Crest. — A rounded crest that is 
split and falls over on both sides. 

Sport. — A fowl that varies from the 
normal type; a white offspring from black 
parents. 

Spur. — A horny growth on the inside of the shank of 
a cock. See 2S, Fig. 1. 





Fig. 27 



276 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 




Fig. 28 



Squirrel Tail. — A tail in which the feathers are car- 
ried so far forward as almost to touch the head, like the 
•tail of a squirrel. Fig. 28. 

Stag. — A young game cock; also, 
a turkey cock. 

Standard Mating. — A mating in 
which the fowls conform to Stand- 
ard description; sometimes called 
single mating when the purpose is 
the production of both males and 
females. 

Station. — Manner of standing; at- 
titude, or pose of a fowl. A fowl 
is said to have good station when 
it has a form typical of the breed 
to which it belongs, has good symmetry, and the proper 
height and reach. Station is a term applied more 
especially to game fowls. Compare with carriage. 

Steppings. — A term used in England to describe the 
effect produced by the ends of the secondary feathers, 
each one of which is shorter than the one immediately 
below it, giving the appearance of a flight of steps. 

Stippling. — The effect produced on plumage by dots 
of dark and of light shades of color, as in Brown Leg- 
horn females. Fig. 29. 
Strain. — Fowls of one variety that have been bred in 
line for a number of generations from a 
few original fowls. 

Strawberry Com b. — A 
lump comb, somewhat re- 
sembling a strawberry in 
shape, as in Malays and 
Silkies. Fig. 30. 

Striping. — Markings of 

dark color that extend 

down the middle of a 

Fig. 29 feather and taper to a 

point near the tip of the feather, as in Light Brahmas 

Brown Leghorns, and some other fowls. Fig. 31. 





Fig. 30 



GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 



277 



Stub. — A short piece of the quill of a feather; especially, 
a short piece of the quill of a feather occasionally 
found on the shanks of smooth-legged 
fowls. 

Style. — A fowl is said to have style when 
it presents a fine, spirited appearance, and 
has good symmetry, station, and carriage. 

Supplementary Lacing. — An outside edg- 
ing or lacing of a different shade or tint 
than the color next to it, that is found on 
both laced and solid feathers. When it 
occurs on laced feathers, as in edging o£ 
white around the outside of black lacing, 
it is the same as double lacing. Fig. 10. 

Surface Color. — The color on the parts 
of the feathers exposed to view. ~ 

Sword Feather. — A main tail feather of ""■ 
a Japanese Bantam male. 

Symmetry. — The blending of all sections 
or parts of a fowl into a harmonious whole. 

Tail Coverts. — The curved, soft feathers 
about the sides of the lower part of the 
tail feathers. See 30, Fig. 1. 

Tail Feathers.— The stiff, or main, feathers of the tail. 
See 31, Fig. 1. 

Team. — Three or more fowls shown by one exhibitor. 

Thigh.— The upper segment of the leg; it is included 
between the body of the fowl and the upper extremity 
of what is known as the drumstick. 

Thoroughbred.— (1) Of the best or the purest breeding; 
in this sense, now generally replaced by the term 
standard bred. (2) A term descriptive of game cocks of 
high courage and spirits. 

Throat. — Same as gullet. 

Thumb Mark. — (1) A hollow place in the side of a 
single comb. Fig. 24. (2) An opening or split in the 
front or center of a tose comb. 

Ticked.— Tlumage is ticked when it has spots of color 
different from the rest of the plumage. 
19 




15^ _ 

Fig. 31 



278 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 

Tight Feathered. — Fowls are said to be tight feathered 
when the feathers lie close to the body; close feathered. 
Tom.— A male turkey; a gobbler. 

Top Color.— The color of the plumage on the back. 
Topknot.— A tufted growth of feathers on the top of 
the head of a fowl; a crest. Figs. 9 and 16. 

Training. — The teaching or drilling of a fowl to pose | 
in the show room. | 

Tricolored. — Of three colors. 

Trimming.— A fraudulent way of preparing a fowl for 
the show room. See faking. 

Tno.— Three; in poultry, a male and two females. 
Trunk. — The body of a fowl, as distinguished from its 
appendages, the legs, neck, head, etc. 

Tucked Up. — A fowl is said to be tucked up when the 
abdomen lacks fulness and makes a sharp upward turn 
to the tail, as in game fowls. 
Twisted Comb. — A comb twisted into curves or some 
other faulty shape. Fig. 32. 

Type. — ^The form peculiar to any 
breed. 

Under Plumage. — The fluff or under 
part of the plumage, seen only when 
the feathers are separated. See feather, 
and h, Fig. 12. 

Utility Fowl. — ^A fowl for egg pro- 
duction and market purposes, as dis- 
tinguished from an exhibition fowl. 
Fig. 32 Variety. — A subdivision of a breed; 

distinguished from other varieties of the same breed by 
the plumage colors. See breed. 

H- Shaped Comb.— A comb having two points or prongs; 
also called antler comb, and horn comb. Fig. 2. 

Vulture Hock. — ^A hock like that of a vulture, which has 
stiff feathers growing from the hock joint. See /6, Fig. 1. 
Washiness.— A state or quality of a feather that ap^ 
pears to have had the color washed out of it. 

Waster.— A fowl unfit for breeding purposes, but fit 
for food. 




GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 279 

Wattles. — Pendant growths of flesh that hang on each 
side of the beak; most prominently developed in male 
fowls. 

Web. — (1) The upper part of a feather where the barbs 
are stuck together; the flat, thin feather structure beyond 
the flufl; part of the feather. See feather and a. Fig. 12. 
(2) The skin growing between the toes. (3) The skin 
between the joints of the wing. 

Web Foot. — ^A foot with webs between the toes. When 
a fowl other than a water fowl has a foot with webs 
between the toes, it is said to have a web foot. 

Wheaten. — An uneven brown like that on ripe standing 
wheat; peculiar to some females of the Black-Breasted 
Red Games and the FaveroUes. 

Whip Tail.— The fine, slim tail of the modern game or 
game bantam fowl. 

Whiskers. — Feathers growing from the side of the face; 
same as muff. Sometimes applied to the muffling below 
the beak. See 6, Fig. 1. 

Whole Color. — ^A fowl is said to be of a whole color 
when all of its plumage is of one color, as buff or 
black, but this does not mean that all the plumage must 
be of one shade of the color. 

Willow Color. — A greenish yellow color peculiar to 
the shanks of some game fowls. 

Wing Bar. — ^A bar of dark color across the middle of 
a wing. See 55, Fig. 1. 

Wing Bay. — A triangular surface 
showing on the wing where it is folded; 
located between the wing bar and the 
point of the wing. See 36, Fig. 1. 

Wing Bow. — The surface ot the wing 
between the wing bar and the shoulder. 
See 33, Fig. 1. 

Wing Butts. — The ends of the flight 
feathers; a misnomer for wing points. 

Wing Coverts. — The feathers that Fig. 33 

cover the roots of the secondary flight feathers. 




280 PIGEONS 

Wing Fronts. — The fronts of the wings, properly called 
shoulders; improperly called wing butts. 

Wing Points. — The extreme outer ends of the flight 
feathers. 

Work, Full of Work. — A term vised in England to de- 
scribe a well-finished rose comb, the points of which are 
perfect or nearly perfect. 

Wry Tail. — A tail carried to one side. Fig. 33. 



PIGEONS 



VARIETIES 

There are almost innumerable breeds and varieties of 
pigeons. The names of the most common are given in 
the following list: 

Archangels. 

Barhs.—BXdLok, White, Red, Yellow, Dun. 

Berlin Tumblers. — Red, Yellow, Blue, Black. 

Blondinettes. — Spangled or Laced, Brown or Laced, 
Black or Laced, Blue or Laced, Sulphur or Laced. 

Breasters. — Black, Yellow, Red, Blue. 

Brunettes. 

Brunswicks. 

Burmese, or Leghorn Runts. 

Capuchins. 

Carneau. — Red, Yellow, Rose-Wing Red, miscellaneous 
colors. 

Carriers. — Black, Dun, Blue, White. 

Cumulets. 

Damascenes. 

Dragoons. — Blue, Silver (brown bars), Silver (black 
bars). Red, Yellow, White. 

Egyptian Swifts. — Blue, Black, White, Red, Yellow, 
Speckled, Mottled. 



PIGEONS 281 

Exhibition Homers. — Black, Blue, Checkered, White, 
Yellow, Red, Red or Red Checkered, Silver or Silver 
Dun. 

Fairies. — Red, Black, Yellow, Blue. 

Fantails.—Blue, Silver, Black, White, Yellow, Red, Sad- 
dle Backs, Silkies, Frizzled. 

Fire Pigeons. 

Flying Antwerps. — Dun, Blue, Blue Checker, Red 
Checker. 

Flying Titmhlers, or Rollers. — Black, Red, Blue, Silver, 
Yellow, Black Rosewing, Red Rosewing, Yellow Rose- 
wing, Black Mottle, Red Mottle, Yellow Mottle, Red 
Breasted (white sides). Black Breasted (white sides), 
Blue Breasted (white sides). Yellow Breasted (white 
sides), Black Saddle, Red Saddle, Yellow Saddle, Blue 
Saddle, Silver Saddle, Black Badge, Red Badge, Yellow 
Badge, Blue Badge, Silver Badge, Checkered Badge, 
Bronze, White. 

Frillbacks. 

Helmets.— Red, Yellow, Black. 

Highflyer. — Plain Head or Crested, Dun, Red, Yellow, 
miscellaneous colors. 

Hollander. — Plain Head, Red, Yellow, Crested Head, 
Yellow. 

Hungarian. — Many colors. 

Hyacinths. 

Isabels. 

Jacobins.— Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, White, Mottled. 

Lahores. * 

Latz. 

Magpies. — Blue, Black, Red, Yellow. 

Maltese.— Black, Blue, Silver, White, Red, Yellow, 
mixed colors. 

Mo^eheads. 

Nuns. — Black, Red, Yellow. 

Oriental Frills. — Same colors as Satinettes. 

Owls. — African, Blue, Black-White, Silver, Checkered, 
White (blue tail), White (black tail), English, Blue, Blue 
Powdered, Silver, Black, White, Red, Yellow, Checkered. 



282 PIGEONS 

Pigmy Pouters. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, Lavender, 
Silver, Mealy, Creamy,' Checkered, White, Red (white 
bars). Yellow (white bars), Black (pied), Black (white 
bars). Blue (pied), Blue (black bars). 

Plain Ice. — Blue, Silver, Powdered Silver. 

Porcelains'. 

Pouters. — Black Pied, Blue Pied, Red Pied, Yellow 
Pied, White. 

Priests.— R&d, Yellow, Black, Blue. 

Quakers. 

Ruffled' Neck Moreheads. 

Runts.— B\ue, Silver, Black, White, Pied. 

Satinettes. — Peaked, Plain Head. 

Scandaroons. — Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, White, Red 
Saddled, Yellow Saddled, Black Saddled, Blue Saddled. 

Shields. 

Short-Faced Tumblers. — Almonds; Agates, Red Yellow; 
Mottles, Black; Rosewings, Black, Red; Splashes; Whole- 
feathers, Red, Yellow; Kites; Blues, Balds, Blue, Silver, 
Red, Black, Yellow; Beards, Blue, Silver, Red, Black, 
Yellow. 

Show Antwerps. — Silver Dun, Blue, Blue Checker, Red 
Checker. 

Snells. 

Spot Fairies. 

Spots. — Black, Blue, Red, Yellow. 

Starlings. 

Siiabians. 

Szvallows. — Red, Yellow, Blue, Black, Checkered. 

Swiss, or Crescents. — Clear Legged, Booted, Long 
Muffled. 

Swiss Mandaine. — Many colors. , 

Tippler. — Solid and mixed colors. 

Trumpeters. — Black, Black Rosewing, Black Mottle, Red 
Mottle, White. 

Turbiteens. — 'Plain Head, Point Crest or Shell Crown; 
Red, Yellow, Black, Blue, Silver. 



PIGEONS 283 

Turbits.— Yellow, Red, Blue, Silver, Black, Checkered, 
Creamy, White Bars. 
Ural Ice.—Ught, Dark. 
Victorias. 
Whiskered Owls. 
White King. 



TERMS USED BY PIGEON FANCIERS 

The following is a glossary of the terms in common use 
by pigeon fanciers: 

Arrow Pointed. — In the form of an arrow. Example, 
the penciling or lacing of a Blondinette. 

Bald or Baldhead. — The white head of a colored pigeon. 
Example, the Bald Tumbler. 

Barrel-Headed.— An elongated skull, free from angles. 
Example, the Show Homer. 

Bar (tail). — The colored band at extremity of tail. 

Bars (wing). — The bands of black or other colors across 
the lower part of the wing. Example, the Blue Dragoon. 

Beard. — A clearly defined V-shaped patch of white 
feathers on the throat, directly under the lower mandible. 
Example, the Long-Faced Beard Tumbler. 

Beetle Brow. — Overhanging eye wattles, as seen in soft- 
eyed Carriers. 

Bib. — The colored feathering running in clearly defined 
outline below the head, along the throat and upper part 
of the breast. Example, the Nun. 

Bishopped. — Having a patch of white feathers at the 
butt end of the wing. 

Blaze. — A white mark on a colored pigeon (generally 
on the forehead). Example, the Blaze-Face. 

Bolting Eye. — An eye that is prominent, wild looking, 
and staring. Example, a young carrier. 

Box Beak. — A beak both mandibles of which are uni- 
form in strength and shape and close fitting. Example, 
the Carrier. 



284 PIGEONS 

Broken (in feather). — An indiscriminate mixture of 
variously colored feathers. Example, the Almond 
Tumbler. 

Broken (in eye). — An erratic coloring of the iris. 

Bull Eye. — An eye, the iris of which, as well as the 
pupil, is very dark in color. Example, the White 
Dragoon. 

Cap. — A colored covering at the top of the head above 
the eye. Example, the Swallow. 

Carriage. — The natural position of a pigeon. 

Cere. — The skin-like substance around the eye. Exam- 
ple, the Dragoon. 

Chain. — An inverted growth of feathering on each side 
of the neck. Example, the Jacobin. 

Checker. — Two distinct shades of one color. Example, 
the Checkered Dragoon. 

Chuck. — The V-shaped patch of white under the lower 
mandible. Example, the Beard Tumbler. 

Clean-Leg. — Free from feathering below the hock. 

Clean-Cut. — Evenly defined. 

Condition. — Robust health and perfection of plumage. 

Crescent. — A half-moon shaped mark on the breast. 
Example, the Suabian. 

Crest. — An inverted growth of feathers at the back of 
the head. Example, the Turbit, 

Crop. — The craw, or first stomach. 

Down-Faced. — Downward contortion of the beak. 

Dewlap.— (See Gullet.) 

Eye Wattles. — The fleshy excrescence around the eye 
(chiefly applied to Carriers and Barbs). 

Feather-Legged. — Feathered below the hocks. Example, 
the Blondinette. 

Flights (outer or primary). — The first ten feathers of 
each wing. 

Flights (inner or secondary). — The remaining long 
feathers of the wing. 

Foul-Thighed. — Colored feathers on white thighs. 






PIGEONS 285 

Frill. — A fringe of feathers on the breast, growing in 
inverted position from the throat downwards. Example, 
the Turbit. 

Frog-Shaped. — Depressed in crown, but free from angles 
and not fiat. 

Gay. — Showing too much white (as applied to the crop 
markings of a Pouter and the shoulder markings of a 
Mottled Tumbler). 

Girth. — The waist of the Pouter. 

Gullet. — An abnormal development of loose skin ex- 
tending from the lower maridible to the top of the neck. 
Example, the Owl. 

Hackle. — The lower feathers at the back of the neck. 

Handkerchief Markings. — A triangular shaped patch of 
white feathers on the back of a colored pigeon. Example, 
the Mottled Tumbler. 

Hood. — The upper covering of the head. Example, the 
Jacobin. 

Jew Wattle.-^The wattle on the lower mandible. 

Keel. — The lower part of the breast. 

Lacing or Penciling. — Clearly defined markings, around 
the outer edge of a feather^ Example, the Blondinette. 

Limb. — The leg and thigh (as applied to the Pouter). 

Mandible. — A portion of the beak. 

Mane. — The ridge of feathers at the back of the neck. 
Example, the Jacobin. 

Mealy. — Undecided color, generally applied to Silver- 
Dun Antwerps and Homers. 

Muffed. — Having a covering of feathers on the hocks, 
legs, and feet. Example, the Trumpeter. 

Peak. — Pointed feathers at the back of the head. Exam- 
ple, the Turbit. 

Pinch-Eyed. — Irregularity of outline as applied to the 
eye cere or eye wattle. Example, the Dragoon. 

Profile. — The side face. 

Rose (breast). — The rose-like feathering on the breast 
of the Owl. 



2S6 PIGEONS 

Rose (feather). — The shoulder markings of the Poute-, 
Mottled Trumpeter, and Tumbler; the same term is also 
applied to the radiating point of the hood, mane, and 
chain of the Jacobin. 

Rose (head). — The feathering on the frontal of the 
Trumpeter. 

Rosette. — Feathering on the breast, in the form of a 
rose. Example, the Owl. 

Saddle. — The upper portion of the back. 

Sclf-Colored. — One color only. 

Shell. — The shell-shaped growth of feathers at the back 
of the head. Example, the Swallow. 

Shod (as applied to the Fantail). — Deflecture of the 
lower feathers of the tail. 

Skull. — The upper portion of the head. 

Slobbered (as applied to the cut of a Baldhead Tumbler). 
Indistinct and uneven. 

Snakey. — Serpentine in shape. Example, the head and 
neck of the Magpie. 

Snip. — ^A clearly defined elongated spot of white, gener- 
ally on the forehead. Example, the Snip (German Toy). 

Solid Color. — (See Self -Colored). 

Spangled. — A "broken" arrangement of feathering. 

Spindle-Beaked. — Having a beak that is long and thin. 

Splash. — An indiscriminate mixture of several colors. 
Example, the Splash Short-Faced Tumbler. 

Spot. — A colored mark on a white pigeon, generally on 
the frontal or forehead. 

Squab. — A very young pigeon, pinfeathered. 

Squeaker. — A (feathered) yoUng pigeon, just learning 
to feed. 

Stockings. — The feathering on the thighs and legs. 
Example, the Pouter. 

Stop. — An abrupt termination of the skull at the base 
of the beak. Example, the Short-Faced Tumbler. 

Tuft. — An inverted growth of feathers behind the wat- 
tle. Example, the Priest. 



ARITHMETIC 287 

Toys. — Varieties of which color and markings are the 
chief properties. 

Vent. — The passage from the body. 

Veil. — Applied to the head markings of the Nun. 

Wattle (beak). — The fleshy excrescence on the beak. 

Whiskers. — The feathers bet-ween the root of the beak 
and the base of the eye. 

Whole Feather. — A self-colored pigeon. 



ARITHMETIC 



I 



I 



MEASURES OF EXTENSION 

Measures of extension are used in- measuring lengths (dis- 
tances), surfaces (areas), and solids (volumes), and are 
divided, accordingly, into linear measure, square measure, and 
cubic measure. 

Linear measure has one dimension (length) , square measure 
has two dimensions (length and breadth) , and cubic measure 
has three dimensions (length, breadth, and thickness). 

LINEAR MEASURE 

12 inches (in.) =1 foot ft. 

3 feet =1 yard yd. 

5| yards =1 rod rd. 

320 rods =1 mile mi. 

in. ft. yd. rd. mi. 

12= 1 
36= 3 = 1 
198= 161= 51= i 
63,360 = 5,280 =1,760 =320 = 1 
SQUARE MEASURE 

144 square inches (sq. in.) =1 square foot sq. ft.^ 

9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd. 

30| square yards = 1 square rod sq. rd. 

160 square rods =1 acre A. 

640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi. 



28S ARITHMETIC 



sq. in, sq. ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. 



sq. 



144= 1 

1,296= 9 = 1 

39,204= 2721= 391= 1 

6,272,640= 43,500 = 4,840 = 160= 1 
4,014,489,600 = 27,878,400 =3,097,600 =102,400 = 640=1 

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE 

^625 square links (sq. li.) =1 square rod . . sq. rd. 

16 square rods = 1 square chain . sq. ch. 

10 square chains = 1 acre A. 

'640 acres =1 square mile . . sq. mi. 

36 square miles (6 miles square) . . . = 1 township Tp. 

A square measuring 208.71 ft. on each side contains 1 A. 
The following are the comparative sizes, in square yards, 
of acres in different places: 



sq. yd. 

Amsterdam 9,722 

Dantzic 6,650 

France 11,960 

Prussia 3,053 



sq. yd. 
England and America 4,840 

Scotland 6,150 

Ireland 7,840 

Hamburg 11,545 

CUBIC MEASURE 

1,728 cubic inches (cu. in) ..,...= 1 cubic foot cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd. 

128 cubic feet =1 cord of wood. 

cu. in. en. ft. cu. yd. 

1,728 = 1 
46,656 = 27 = 1 



MEASURES OF WEIGHT 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound lb. 

100 pounds =1 hundredweight .... cwt. 

20 hundredweight "I _ ™ 

2,000 pounds J ~ -^ *°'' 

oz. lb. cwt. T. 
16= 1 
1,600= 100= 1 
32,000 = 2,000 = 20 = 1 



ARITHMETIC 289 



LONG-TON TABLE 

16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound lb. 

28 pounds. = 1 quarter qr. 

4 quarters =1 hundredweight .... cwt. 

20 hundredweight 1 ^ . t, 

nAr\ J f =lton 1. 

,240 pounds J 

oz. lb. qr. cwt. T, 

16= 1 
448= 28= 1 
1.792= 112= 4= 1 
35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20=1 

TROY WEIGHT 

24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight pwt. 

20 pennyweights =1 ounce oz. 

12 ounces =1 pound lb. 

gr. pwt. oz. lb. 
24= 1 
480= 20= 1 
5.760 = 240 = 12 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple so. or 9 

3 scruples =1 dram dr. or 5 

8 drams. =1 ounce oz. or g 

12 ounces =1 pound lb. or ft). 

^ gr. 3 5 B lb 

20= 1 
60= 3= 1 
480= 24= 8= 1 
5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 



MEASURES OF CAPACITY 

LIQUID MEASURE 

4 gills (gl.) =1 pint pt. 

2 pints =1 quart qt. 

4 quarts =1 gallon gal. 

31| gallons =1 barrel bbl. 

m gaTlon!} = lhogshead hhd. 



290 ARITHMETIC 

gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd» 
4= 1 
8= 2= 1 
32= 8= 4= 1 
1,008 = 252 = 126 = 311 = 1 
2.016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE 

60 minims, or drops (TT^) . . . . = 1 fluid dram f5 

8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce f 5 

16 fluid ounces =1 pint O. 

8 pints = 1 gallon Cong. 



2 pints (pt.). 
8 quarts. . . . 
4 pecks 



DRY MEASURE 

=1 quart qt. 

, =1 peck pk. 

=1 bushel bu. 

pt. qt. pk. bu. 
2= 1 
16= 8 = 1 
64 = 32 = 4 = 1 



AVOIRDUPOIS 


POUNDS IN A BUSHEL 




Commodities 


Lb. 


Commodities 


Lb. 


Barley 


48 
60 
48 
60 
56 
70 


Malt 


34 


Beans . 


Oats 


32 




Potatoes 


60 


Clover seed 


Rye 


56 


Com (shelled) 


Timothy seed . ... 


45 




Wheat 


60 









The following units are also in commercial use: 

1 quintal of fish = 100 lb. 

1 barrel of flour = 196 lb. 

1 barrel of pork or beef = 200 lb. 

1 gallon of petroleum = 6 J lb. 

1 keg of nails =100 lb. 



ARITHMETIC 291 

K MEASURES OF TIME 

»60 seconds (sec.) =1 minute min. 

60 minutes =1 hour hr. 

24 hours =1 day da. 

7 days =1 week wk. 

4 weeks =1 month mo. 

12 months =1 year yr. 

100 years =1 century C. 

sec. min. hr. da wk. yr. 

rl 60= 1 

'• 3.600= 60= 1 

^ 86,400= 1,440= 24= 1 

604,800= 10,080= 168= 7= 1 
31,556,936 = 525.948 = 8,765 = 365 = 52 = 1 

■ The following is a list of the months, in regular order, 
with the number of days each contains: 



Days 
I.January (Jan.) 31 

2. February (Feb) 28 

3. March (Mar.) 31 

4. April (Apr.) 30 

5. May 31 

6. June 30 



Days 

7. July 31 

8. August (Aug.) 31 

9. September (Sept.).. 30 

10. October (Oct.) 31 

11. November (Nov.) ..30 

12. December (Dec.) ...31 



In leap years, 1 da. is added to Feb., giving it 
29 da. The following lines will assist in remembering 
the number of days in each month: 

"Thirty days have September, 
April, June, and November; 
All the rest have thirty-one, 
Except the second month alone, 
|. To which we twenty-eight assign, 

i 'Till leap year gives it twenty-nine." 

In many business transactions, the year is regarded as 
360 da., or 12 mo. of 30 da. each. 



292 ARITHMETIC 



MEASURES OF ANGLES OR ARCS 

CIRCULAR MEASURE 

60 seconds {") = 1 minute 

60 minutes = 1 degree 

360 degrees =1 circle i 

60"= 1' 

3,600"= 60'= 1° 
1,296,000" = 21,600' = 360° =10 
A quadrant is one-fourth of a circle, or 90°; a sextant is 
one-sixth of a circle, or 60°. A right angle (L) contains 90°. 
The unit of measurement is the degree, or ggg of the circum- 
ference of a circle. 

Circular, or angular, measure is used principally by surveyors, 
navigators, astronomers, and by technical men generally, for 
measuring angles and arcs of circles. 



METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES 

The metric system is based on the meter, which, according 
to the U, S. Coast and Goedetic Survey Report of 1884, is 
equal to 39.370432 in. The value commonly used is 39.37 in. 
and is authorized by the U. S. government. 

There are three principal units — the meter, the liter (pro- 
nounced 'lee-ter'), and the gram, the units of length, capacity, 
and weight, respectively. Multiples of these units are obtained 
by prefixing to the names of the principal units the Greek words 
deca (10), hecto (100), and kilo (1,000); the submultiples, or 
divisions, are obtained by prefixing the Latin words deci (^), 
centi (rhs), and milt (toVo). These prefixes form the key to the 
entire system. The abbreviations of the principal units of 
these submultiples begin with a small letter, while those of the 
multiples begin with a capital letter. 



ARITHMETIC 293 



§ MEASURES OF LENGTH 

10 millimeters (mm.) =1 centimeter cm. 

10 centimeters =1 decimeter. dm. 

10 decimeters , =1 meter m. 

10 meters =1 decameter Dm. 

10 decameters =1 hectometer Hm. 

10 hectometers =1 kilometer Km. 

MEASURES OF SURFACE (NOT LAND) 

100 square miUimeters 

(sq. mm.) =1 square centimeter . . . sq. cm. 

100 square centimeters =1 square decimeter sq. dm. 

100 square decimeters =1 square meter sq. m. 

MEASURES OF VOLUME 

1,000 cubic milUmeters 

(cu. mm.) =1 cubic centimeter . . . .cu. cm. 

1,000 cubic centimeters =1 cubic decimeter cu. dm. 

1,000 cubic decimeters =1 cubic meter cu. m. 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY 

10 millimeters (ml.) =1 centileter cl. 

10 centileters =1 decileter dl. 

10 decileters =1 liter 1. 

10 liters =1 decaliter Dl. 

10 decaliters =1 hectoliter HI. 

10 hectoliters =1 kiloliter Kl. 

The liter is equal to the volume occupied by 1 cu. dm. 

MEASURES OF WEIGHT 

10 milligrams (mg.) =1 centigram eg. 

10 centigrams =1 decigram dg. 

10 decigrams =1 gram g. 

10 grams =1 decagram Dg. 

10 decagrams =1 hectogram Hg. 

10 hectograms =1 kilogram Kg. 

1,000 kilograms =1 ton T. 

The gram is the weight of 1 cu. cm. of pure distilled water 
at a temperature of 39.2° F. ; the kilogram is the weight of 1 
liter of water; the ton is the weight of 1 cu. m. of water. 
20 



294 ARITHMETIC 

MEASURES OF MONEY 

UNITED STATES MONEY 

10 mills (m.) =1 cent C, 

10 cents =1 dime d. 

10 dimes =1 dollar $ 

10 dollars =1 eagle E. 

m. a. d. $ E. 

10= 1 
100= 10= 1 
1,000= 100= 10= 1 
10.000 = 1 ,000 = 100 = 10 = 1 
The term legal tender is applied to money that may be 
legally offered in payment of debts. All gold coins are 
legal tender for their face value to any amount, pro- 
vided their weight has not diminished more than ^, 
Silver dollars are also legal tender to any amount; but 
silver coins of lower denominations than $1 are legal 
tender only for sums not exceeding $10, Nickel and 
copper coins are legal tender for sums not exceeding 
25c. 
The legal coins of the United States are: 

Gold Coins Weight in Grains 

1-doIlar piece = 25.8 

2§-dollar piece, or quarter eagle = 64.5 

3-dollar piece ." . = 77.4 

5-dollar piece, or half eagle = 129.0 

lO-doUar piece, or eagle = 258.0 

20-dollar piece, or double eagle = 516.0 

Silver Coins Weight 

Standard dollar =412.5 grains 

Half dollar, or 50-cent piece = 192.9 grains, or 12 1 grams 

Quarter dollar, or 25-cent piece. . = 96.45 grains, or 6^ grams 
Dime, or 10-cent piece = 38.58 grains, or 2| grams 

Copper and Nickel Coins 

Weight 

5-cent piece =77.16 grains, or 5 grams 

3-cent piece = 30.00 grains 

1-cent piece =48.00 grains 



ARITHMETIC 295 

ENGLISH MONEY 

4 farthings (far.) = 1 penny d. 

12 pence =1 shilling s. 

20 shillings =1 pound, or sovereign £ 

far. d. s. £ 
4= 1 
48= 12= 1 
960 = 240 = 20 = 1 

The unit of English money is the pound sterling, the value 
of which in United States money is $4.8665. The fineness of 
English silver is .925; of the gold coins, .916|. What is called 
sterling silver when applied to solid-silver articles has the 
same fineness. Hence the name sterling silver. 

The other coins of Great Britain are the florin ( = 2 shillings), 
the crown ( = 5 shillings), the half crown ( = 2| shillings), and 
the guinea ( = 21 shillings) . The largest silver coin is the crown, 
and the smallest the threepence (i shilling). The shilling is 
worth 25c. (24.3 +c.) in United States money. The guinea 
is no longer coined. The abbreviation £ is written before 
the number, while s. and d. follow. Thus, £25 4s. 6d. 
= 25 pounds 4 shillings 6 pence. 

Rule. — To reduce pounds, shillings, and pence to dollars and 
cents, reduce the pounds to shillings, add the shillings, if any, 
and multiply the sum by 24\; if any pence are given, increase 
this product by twice as many cents as there are pence. 

Example. — Reduce £4 7s. lid. to dollars and cents. 

Solution.— (4X20+7) X .24|+2X 11 = $21.39. 

Rule. — To reduce pounds to dollars, and vice versa, exchange 
being at %J^.8665: Multiply the number of pounds by 73, and 
divide the quotient by 15; the result will be the equivalent in dollars 
and cents. Or, multiplying the dollars by 15 and dividing the 
product by 73 will give its equivalent in pounds and decimals 
of a pound. 

Example 1. — Reduce £6 to dollars and cents. 

Solution.— 6X73-M5 = $29.20. 

Example 2. — ^Reduce $17 to pounds. 

Solution.— 17X15-^73 = £3.493. 



296 



ARITHMETIC 



1 

1 tVifir* 



The monetary units of leading foreign nations and their* 
equivalents in United States money are as follows. These 
rates are proclaimed each year by the Secretary of the 
Treasury- 



Country 



Canada 

Great Britain . . 

France 1 

Belgium. . . . > . 
Switzerland J 

Italy 

Spain 

German Empire 
Denmark 1 

Norway > 

Sweden J 

Russia 

Japan 



Monetary Unit 



Dollar = 100 cents 

Pound =20 shillings. . . 

Franc = 100 centimes. 

Lira = 100 centesimi 

Peseta =100 centimes. 

Mark =100 pfennigs . 

Crown = 100 ore 

Ruble =100 copecks. . 

Yen =100 sen 



Value in 
U. S. Gold 



$1.00 

4.86f 

.193 

.193 
.193 
.238 

.268 

.515 

.498 



HEAT 
SPECIFIC HEATS OF METALS 

The specific heat of a substance is the number of heat 
units required to raise a unit mass of the substance one 
degree in temperature. The specific heat of water is very 
nearly constant for all temperatures, but that at its tempera- 
ture of maximum density (4° C. or 39.1° F.) is considered 
unity. The specific heats of most substances increase with 
increasing temperatures. 



HEAT UNITS 

One British thermal unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity of heat 
required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of pure water 1° F. 
at or near its maximum density, 39.1° F. 

One calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the 
temperature of 1 Kg. of water 1° C. at or near 4° C. 



A.RITHMETIC 



297 



1 B. T. U. = .252 calorie and 1 calorie = 3. 968 B. T. U. 

One small, or gram, calorie (a heat unit also in some use) is 
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 
1 gram of water 1° C. at or near 4° C. 



CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT 


DEGREES 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 





32.0 


26 


78.8 


51 


123.8 


76 


168.8 


1 


33.8 


27 


80.6 


52 


125.6 


77 


170.6 


2 


35.6 


28 


82.4 


53 


127.4 


78 


172.4 


3 


37.4 


29 


84.2 


54 


129.2 


79 


174.2 


4 


39.2 


30 


86.0 


55 


131.0 


80 


176.0 


5 


41.0 


31 


87.8 


56 


132.8 


81 


177.8 


6 


42.8 


32 


89.6 


57 


134.6 


82 


179.6 


7 


44.6 


33 


91.4 


58 


136.4 


83 


181.4 


8 


46.4 


34 


93.2 


59 


138.2 


84 


183.2 


9 


48.2 


35 


95.0 


60 


140.0 


85 


185.0 


10 


50.0 


36 


96.8 


61 


141.8 


86 


186.8 


11 


51.8 


37 


98.6 


62 


143.6 


87 


188.6 


12 


53.6 


38 


100.4 


63 


145.4 


88 


190.4 


13 


55.4 


39 


102.2 


64 


147.2 


89 


192.2 


14 


57.2 


40 


104.0 


65 


149.0 


90 


194.0 


15 


59.0 


41 


105.8 


66 


150.8 


91 


195.8 


16 


60.8 


42 


107.6 


67 


152.6 


92 


197.6 


17 


62.6 


43 


109.4 


68 


154.4 


93 


199.4 


18 


64.4 


44 


111.2 


69 


156.2 


94 


201.2 


. 19 


66.2 


45 


113.0 


70 


158.0 


95 


2C3.0 


20 


68.0 


46 


114.8 


71 


159.8 


96 


204.8 


21 


69.8 


47 


116.6 


72 


161.6 


97 


206.6 


22 


71.6 


48 


118.4 


73 


163.4 


98 


208.4 


23 


73.4 


49 


120.2 


74 


165.2 


99 


210.2 


24 


75.2 


50 


122.0 


75 


167.0 


100 


212.0 


25 


77.0 















298 ARITHMETIC 

TEMPERATURE 

The temperature of a body is its degree of sensible heat. 
For the measurement of temperatures there are three kinds of 
thermometers: the Fahrenheit, abbreviated F. or Fahr., com- 
monly used in America; the Centigrade, abbreviated C. or 
Cent., used in France and by scientists everywhere; and the 
Reaumur, abbreviated Ror R6au., used in Germany. 

Standard Points Degrees F, Degrees C, Degrees R. 

Boiling point of water at "j 

sea level; i. e., pressure [ 212 100 80 

= 1 atmosphere J 

Melting point of ice 32 

Absolute zero, i. e., thel 

total absence of heat; > -460 —273 —219 

theoretical only J 

Between boiling point and freezing point = 180° F. = 100° C. 
<=80° R. 



9 9 

Temp. P.=- Temp. C.+32° =-Temp. R.+32°. 
5 4 

5 , 5 

Temp. C. = -(Temp. F.-32°) =-Temp. R. 

9 4 

4, 4 

Temp. R. = -(Temp. F.-32°) =-Temp. C. 
9 5 



MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 

The following table is used in counting certain articles: 

12 of anything = 1 dozen doz. 

12 dozen =1 gross gr. 

12 gross =1 great gross g. gr. 

20 of anything = 1 score 

units doz. gr. g. gr, ' 
12= 1 
144= 12= 1 
1,728 = 144 = 12 = 1 



ARITHMETIC 299 

The following table is used in the paper trade: 

24 sheets =1 qmre. qr. 

20 quires =1 ream <,...,......... rm. 

2 reams = 1 bundle , bdl. 

5 bundles = 1 bale. B. 

sheets qr. rm. bdl. B. 
24= 1 
480= 20= 1 
960= 40= 2 = 1 
4,800 = 200=10 = 5 = 1 
It is now becoming customary to consider SOD sheets 
as a ream, and to discard the higher denominations. 

BOOKS 

The terms folio, quarto, octavo, etc., show the number 
of leaves into which a sheet of paper is folded. 

Folio = 2 leaves, or 4 pages 

Quarto = 4 leaves, or 8 pages 

Octavo =: 8 leaves, or 16 pages 

Duodecimo =12 leaves, or 24 pages 

16mo = 16 leaves, or 32 pages 

ISmo = 18 leaves, or 36 pages 

24mo =24 leaves, or 48 pages 

32mo =32 leaves, or 64 pages 

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS, FEET, ETC. 

The government ptiblishes the equivalents in pounds, 
etc., of the metric system, but the American shipper 
wants to know what the pounds, inches, feet, and gal- 
lons, to which he is accustomed, are in the metric 
system. The following is a convenient table showing 
the metric values of our measures. Some countries de- 
mand that the metric system should be used in the 
consular papers, and in most countries, especially in 
Latin-America, the consignees ask for the weights, etc., 
in the metric system. This table will be found valuable 
for reference by invoice clerks and shipping clerks in the 
export departments of manufacturing establishments. 



300 



ARITHMETIC 



Pounds 


Kilos 


Pounds 


Kilos 


1 


= .4536 

= .9072 


60 


=27.216 


2 


70 


....=31.751 


3 


= 1.3608 


80 


=36.287 


4 


=1.8144 


90 


=40.823 


5 


=2.2680 


100 


= 45.36 


6 


=2.7216 


200 

300 


....= 90.72 


7 


=3.1751 


. . . . = 136.08 


8 


=3.6287 


400 


. . . . = 181.44 


9 


= 4.0823 


500 

600 


=226.80 


10 


= 4.536 


=272.16 


20 


= 9.072 


700 


=317.51 


30 


= 13.608 


800 


....=362.87 


40 


=18.144 


900 


....=408.23 


50 


=22.680 


1,000 


....=453.60 


1.000 kilos = 


= 1 metric ton (T< 


^nelada metrico). 






Centimeters 




Centimeters 


1 inch 


= 2.54 


7 feet 


=213.36 


Ifoot 


= 30.48 


8 feet 


=243.84 


1 yard 


= 91.44 


9 feet 


=274.32 


2 feet 


= 60.96 


10 feet 


=304.80 


3 feet 


= 91.44 


11 feet 


=335.28 


4 feet 


=121.92 


12 feet 


=365.76 


5 feet 


= 152.40 


13 feet 


=396.24 


6 feet 


= 182.88 


14 feet 


. . . . =426.72 



DIFFERENCE OF SUN TIME BETWEEN NEW 
YORK CITY AND OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD 

When it is noon at New York, it is, at 



Buffalo 11:40 A.M. 

Cincinnati 11:18 A. M. 

Chicago 11:07 A. M. 

St. Louis 10:55 A. M. 

San Francisco 8:45 A. M. 

New Orleans 10:56 A. M. 

Washington 11:48 A. M. 

Charleston 11 :36 a. m. 

Havana 11:25 a. m. 



Boston 12:12 P.M. 

Quebec 12:12 P. M. 

London 4:55 P. M. 

Paris 5:05 P. M. 

Rome 6:45 P. M. 

Constantinople ... 6:41 p. M. 

Vienna 6:00 P. M. 

St. Petersburg .... 6:57 p. m. 
Peking 12:40 A. M. 



ARITHMETIC 301 

TABLE OF DISTANCES 

1 mile =5,280 ft.; 1,760 yd.; 

320 rd.; 8 fur. 

1 furlong =40 rd. 

1 league =3 mi. 

1 knot,* or nautical mile =6,080 ft., or 11 mi. 

1 nautical league =3 naut. mi. 

1 fathom =6 ft. 

1 meter = 3 ft. 3| in., nearly 

1 hand =4 in. 

1 palm = 3 in. 

1 span =9 in. 

1 cable's length =240 yd. 

MEASURES OF VOLUME 

1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. 

1 ale gallon = 282 cu. in. 

1 standard, or wine, gallon =231 cu. in. 

1 dry gallon =268.8 cu. in. 

1 bushel =2,150.4 cu. in. 

1 British bushel =2,218.19 cu. in. 

1 cord of wood = 128 cu. ft. 

1 perch =24.75 cu. ft. 

1 ton of round timber =40 cu. ft. 

1 ton of hewn timber = 50 cu. ft. 

A box 12^1 in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 bu. 

A box 191 in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 bbl. 

A box 8| in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 pk. 

A box 6iV in. long, wide, and deep contains J pk. 

A box 4^ in. long, wide, and deep contains 1 qt. 
Cylinders having the following dimensions, in inches, con- 
tain the measures stated, very closely; the diameters are 
given first: 

Gill =lfin.X3in. 1 Gallon = Tin.X 6 in. 

Pint =3|in.X3in. 8 gallons = 14in.X12in. 

Quart =3Hn.X6in. | 10 gallons =14in.X15in. 



*A knot is really a measure of speed and not of distance; 
when used in this sense, it is equivalent to 1 naut. mi. in 1 hr. 
Thus, a vessel traveling 20 naut. mi. per hr. has a speed of 
20 knots. 



302 ARITHMETIC 

PLASTERING, PAINTING, AND 
CALCIMINING 

Plastering, painting, and calcimining are usually estimated 
by the square yard. Allowances for doors, windows, etc. are 
not regulated by any established usage. 

Rule. — Multi-ply the perimeter* of the room by the height of 
the ceiling for the area of the walls. To this add the area of the 
ceiling, and from the sum make such deductions as are specified. 
Reduce the results to square yards, and multiply the price per 
square yard by the number denoting the area in square yards. 

Example.— At 22c. per sq. yd., what will it cost to 
plaster a room 65 ft. long, 22 ft. wide, and 15 ft. high, 
deducting in full for 8 doors 4 ft. 6 in. wide and 11 ft. 
6 in. high, 10 windows 3 ft. 6 in. wide and 8 ft. high, and 
a baseboard 6J^ in. high extending around the room? 

Solution. — 

Perimeter of the room = 65X 2+22X2 = 174 ft. 

Area of walls =174X15 = 2610 sq. ft. 

Area of ceiling = 65X22 = 1430 sq. ft. 

Total =4040 sq. ft. 

Area of doors =4|X11|X8= 414 sq. ft. 

Area of windows =3JX 8X 10= 280 sq. ft. 

Area of baseboard = (perimeter less 

width of 8 doors) Xj| = (174-41 X8)X^= 74| sq.ft. 

Total, after deduction = 3271i sq. ft. 

Area in square yards =3271^-4-9 = 363ii sq. yd. 

Cost =$.22X363^1 = $79.96 



PAPERING 

Wallpaper as made in the United States, is 18 in. 
(/4 yd.) wide, and is sold in single rolls and double 
rolls; a single roll is 8 yd. long, and a double roll is 
16 yd. long. When cutting the paper, paper hangers 
divide the rolls into strips of sufficient length to reach 



*The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the sides of the 
room. 



ARITHMETIC 303 

from the baseboard to a short distance (say 6 in.) above 
the lower edge of the border. There is always con- 
siderable waste in cutting, owing to the matching of 
the figures forming the design, and the fact that there 
is a part of a strip left over after cutting up the roll. 
The parts of strips thus left over are used for the 
surface above doors and below windows, and other 
irregular places. Although double rolls are usually 
counted as 2 single rolls, the»e is a choice between them 
in certain cases. Thus, suppose the strips were required 
to be 9 ft. (3 yd.) long, only 2 strips could be cut from 
a single roll, or 4 strips from 2 single rolls, while 5 
strips could be cut from a double roll. The length of a 
roll of border is the same as the length of a roll of 
paper. 

On account of the waste in cutting, the various sizes 
and shapes of rooms, the number of windows, doors, etc., 
it is difficult to estimate exactly the number of rolls 
required. Two rules are given, both of which are used 
in practice: 

Rule. — I. From the perimeter of the room, subtract the widths 
of openings (windows and doors), and reduce the result to half 
yards; the number of half yards so obtained will be the total 
number of strips required. Find the number of strips that can 
ie cut from a roll, and divide the first result by the second; the 
Quotient will be the number of rolls required. 

II. Divide the number of half yards of the perimeter of the 
room by the number of strips that can be cut from a roll; the 
quotient will be the number of rolls required. 

If computed by the first rule, the number of rolls 
obtained may be too small, and if computed by the 
second rule, too large. But, since paper dealers will 
usually take back all rolls that are intact, the second 
rule will generally give the best results, as it will 
prevent the loss of time required to send to the dealer 
for extra rolls, in case they are needed. 

Example. — Find how much paper will be needed to 
cover the walls and ceiling of a room 15 ft. x 20 ft., the 
border for both walls and ceiling to be 18 in. wide. The 



304 ARITHMETIC j 

baseboard is 8 in. high, and the height of walls f rom | 
floor to ceiling is 9 ft. 

Solution.— Since the widths of the openings are not 
specified, it will be necessary to use rule II. 

Perimeter of room = 2 x 15 + 2 x 20 = 70 ft. = 231/^ yd. = 46?^ 
half yards, or 47 strips. Assuming that the strips extend 
the height of the baseboard above the bottom edge of 
the border, the length of a strip is (since 18 in. = V/z ft.) 
9-iy2-7y2 ft. = 2y2 yd. Hence, the number of strips in 
a single roll is 8 -f 2J^ = 3 strips, and the number of rolls 
required is 47 ^ 3 = 15%, or 16 rolls. 

In papering the ceiling, the direction in which the 
strips are to run must be considered. If the strips run 
lengthwise of the room, the distance between the edges 
of the border is 20-2xli^ = l7 ft., and the length of the 
strips must be at least 18 ft., or 6 yd., long; hence, but 
1 strip can be cut from a single roll, and but 2 strips 
from a double roll. The width of the room in half yards 
is (15 f 3) x2=:10; hence, allowing for the border, 9 strips, 
or 9 single rolls, will be required. 

If the strips run crosswise of the room, the length 
of a strip between the edges of the border will be 
15-2xlj4 = 12 ft., and the length of a strip must be at 
least 13 ft., or 41/3 yd.; hence, 1 strip may be obtained 
from a single roll, or 16 t 4% = 3 strips from a double 
roll. The length of the room in half yards is (20 4- 3) x 2 
= 131/^; hence, allowing the paper to extend 6 in. beyond 
the inner edge of the border, at both ends of the room, 
12 strips will be required. The number of double rolls 
required will be 12t3 = 4 double rolls. Consequently, in 
this case, there is less waste when the paper runs cross- 
wise than when it runs lengthwise. 

Since the perimeter of the room is 70 ft., or 23l/§ yd., 
23^^-^8 = 3 single rolls of border for the walls, and the 
same amount for the ceiling will be required. Therefore, 
16 single rolls of paper are required for the walls, 
4 double rolls for the ceiling, 3 single rolls of border for 
the walls, and 3 single rolls for the ceiling. 



ARITHMETIC 305 

CARPETING 

Carpet is made in various widths. Ingrain carpet is usually 
36 in., or 1 yd., wide; Brussels carpet is 27 in., or f yd., wide. 
Carpet borders are 22§ in., or f yd., wide. A linear yard of 
ingrain carpet contains 1 sq. yd., and a linear yard of Brussels 
carpet contains f sq, yd. 

Rule. — To find the number of linear yards of carpet required 
for a room, if no allowance is made for cutting and matching 
the strips, divide the area of the room in square yards by the area 
of a linear yard of the carpet. 

Example. — How many yards of Brussels carpet will be 
required to cover a floor 36 ft. long and 21 ft. wide, 
making no allowance for cutting and matching? 

Solution.— Area of floor = 36X21 = 756 sq. ft.=^ 

= 84 sq. yd. A linear yard of Brussels carpet has an area of 
I sq. yd. Hence, the number of linear yards required is 
84-^1 = 112 yd. 

In practice, there is usually considerable loss due to 
cutting and matching. To find the number of yards re- 
quired for a room, when allowance is made for loss, the 
width of the room is divided by the width of a single 
strip. The quotient is the number of strips required, 
supposing them to run lengthwise of the room. The 
number of strips multiplied by the length in yards of a 
single strip, making allowance for the loss required for 
matching, is the number of linear yards required. 

Example. — How many yards of Brussels carpet will be 
required to cover a room 23 ft. long and 15 ft. wide, 
making an allowance of 1 ft. on each strip for matching? 
The carpet is supposed to run lengthwise. 

Solution.— Width of room = 15 ft. = 180 in. Width of 
carpet = 27 in. Number of strips = 180 -r- 27 = 6f. Hence, 
7 strips must be used, the excess, 9 in., being cut off or turned 
under. Allowing 1 ft. for matching, length of strip = 23+1 
= 24 ft. = 8 yd. Number of linear yards required = 7X8 
= 56 yd. 



306 ARITHMETIC 

The number of linear yards of carpet border required 
for a room is equal to the perimeter of the room in 
yards. 

Example. — How many yards of border will be required 
in carpeting a room 42 ft. long and 26J^ ft. wide? 

Solution.— Perimeter of room = 42X2-h26|X2=137 ft. 

= -5- = 45|yd. 



BOARD MEASURE 

In measuring lumber, the unit is the board foot, which is a 
board 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, and 1 in. (or less) thick. One 
board foot is equal to ^ cu. ft. 

Rule. — To find the number of board feet in any piece of lumber, 
multiply the length in feet by the breadth in feet, and this product 
by the thickness in inches, if it be more than 1 inch; or, otherwise, 
multiply the length in feet by the breadth in inches, and this 
product by the thickness in inches, and then divide by 12. 

Example. — How many board feet are contained in a 
joist 18 ft. long, 14 in. wide, and 12 in. thick? 

Solution.— 18X14>a2 ^ ^52 board feet. 
1^ 

Lumber is sold by the thousand (M) feet, the term foot 
being always used instead of the longer term, board foot. 

Rule. — To find the cost of lumber, divide the number of feet by 
1 ,000 and multiply by the cost per M. 

Example. — What will be the cost of 19 boards 14 ft. 
long, 15 in. wide, and 1>4 in. thick, at $23.50 per M? 

Solution. — Number of thousand feet = — loy 1 OQQ — ~ 

= .498f. Hence, .498fX $23.50 = $11.72. 

Shingles are sold in bundles of 250 (54 M). The lengths 
of all shingles in bundle are the same (usually 12 in., 
14 in., or 16 in.), but their widths vary. The average 
width, however, is generally 4 in., the width of all 
bundles being alike. When laying shingles, 4 in. is 
usually exposed to the weather, the remaining portions 
being concealed by the other shingles. 



ARITHMETIC 307 

Rule. — To find the number of shingles required to cover a roof, 
compute the total area of the roof in square inches, and divide 
this area by the product of the average width of the shingles and 
the length that is exposed to the weather. 

Example, — What will it cost to shingle a roof, each 
side measuring 40 ft. x 16 ft., if the shingles cost $4.50 
per M? 

Solution. — Since the size of the exposed portion is not 

stated, it will be assumed as 4 in.X4 in. Then, for one side, 

40 X 16 X 144 

--— = 5,760 shingles will be required, and for both 

sides, 5,760X2 = 11,520 shingles. Therefore, the cost will be 
11.52X $4.50 = $51.84. 

Multiply by 144 in order to reduce the square feet (40X16) 
to square inches. Allowance should also be made for waste. 



MASONRY 

In estimating the cubical contents of stone walls, the perck 
of 24f cu. ft. is used. 

Rule. — To find the number of perches of masonry in a wall, 
divide the volume of the wall in cubic feet by 24f . 

In estimating the contents of stone foundations for build- 
ings, the length of the wall is measured on the outside, thus 
cotmting each comer twice. If a wall 2 ft. thick measures 
12 ft. X20 ft. on the outside, and the comers are assumed to 
be parts of the longer sides, there will be 2 walls each 20 ft. 
long, and 2 walls each 8 ft. long. The actual length is there- 
fore 2X20+2X8 = 56 ft. The length estimated on the out- 
side is 2X20+2X12=64 ft. To find the actual length of 
such a wall, subtract 4 times the thickness of the wall from 
the length measured on the outside. Thus, in the above case, 
actual length = 64 -4X2 = 56 ft. 

Usually, masons make no allowance for windows or doors 
in estimating their work. In estimating the quantity of stone 
required for the wall, such allowances should be made. 

Example. — (o) How many perches of stone will be re- 
quired to build the walls of a church 60 ft. long by 



308 ARITHMETIC 

32 ft. wide, the walls being 24 ft. high and 2J4 ft. thick? 
There are 8 windows, each 5 ft. wide and 11 ft. high, 
and 2 doors, each 6 ft. wide and 9 ft. high, (fc) What 
will be the cost of laying the walls at $3.50 per perch? 

Solution. — 

Length of wall (outside) =2X60+2X32 = 184 ft. 

Actual length= 184-4X21= 175 ft. 

Actual cubical contents = 175X24X21 = 9,450 cu. ft. 

Allowance for windows = 5X 11 X2|X 8 = 990 cu. ft. 

Allowance for doors = 6X9X2iX2 = 243 cu. ft. 

Net contents = 9, 450 -(990 +243) = 8,2 17 cu. ft. 

(fl) Perches required for wall = 8,217 -^241 = 332. 

(fc) Since, in estimating the cost of the work, no allowance 
is made for corners, doors, and windows. 

Cubical contents =184X24X21 = 9,936 cu. ft. 

Perches of stonework = 9,936-^ 24 f = 401 A"- 

Cost of laying walls = 401x\X $3.50 = $1,405.09. 



BRICKWORK 

Brickwork is generally estimated by the thousand 
bricks laid in the wall, but measurements by the cubic 
yard and by the perch are also used. To allow for 
mortar, % in. is added to the length and to the thickness 
in making calculations. The following data will be 
found useful in calculating the number of bricks in a 
wall. For each superficial foot of wall 4 in. in thickness 
(the width of 1 brick), allow 7^ bricks; for a 9-in. wall 
(the width of 2 bricks), allow 15 bricks; and so on, 
estimating 7j^ bricks for each additional 4 in. in thick- 
ness of wall. If brickwork is to be estimated by the 
cubic yard, allow 500 bricks to 1 cu. yd. This figure is 
based on the use of 8J4 in. x4 in. x 2^ in. bricks, with 
mortar joints not over Yz in. thick. If the joints are 
y% in. thick, as in face brickwork, 1 cu. yd. will require 
about 575 bricks. In making calculations of the number 
of bricks required, an allowance of, say, 5% should be 
made for waste in breakage, etc. 



ARITHMETIC 309 

i BINS, CISTERNS, ETC. 

It is frequently necessary to estimate the capacity of a 
bin, box, or vessel in bushels, barrels, or gallons. The 
volume of the bin or vessel in cubic feet or cubic 
inches is divided by the number of cubic feet or cubic 
inches in a bushel, barrel, or gallon, as the case may be. 
For convenience of reference, the following table of 
capacities is given: 

Dry Measure 
1 heaped bushel =2,747.71 cu. in. = 1.59 cu. ft., nearly 
1 stficken bushel = 2,150.42 cu. in. = 1.25 cu. ft., nearly 
1 peck = 537.6 cu. in. 

1 quart = 67.2 cu. in. 

1 pint = 33.6 cu. in. 

Liquid Measure 

1 hogshead = 8.422 cu. ft. 

1 barrel =4.211 cu. ft. 

1 gallon =231 cu. in. 

1 quart = 57.75 cu. in. 

1 pint =28.875 cu. in. 

Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin or other vessel in dry 

measure or in liquid measure, divide the volume of the bin or 

vessel in cubic inches by the number of cubic inches in the unit 

of measure. 

The following table of approximate capacities is very 
convenient in rough calculations: 

1 cubic foot = .63 heaped bushel 
1 cubic foot = .80 stricken bushel 
1 cubic foot = 7. 50 liquid gallons 
1 cubic foot = ^ barrel 
The following short rules are approximate, but the 
results are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. 
Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin in heaped bushels, multiply 
the volume in cubic feet by .63. 

Rule. — To find the capacity of a bin in stricken bushels, multiply 
the volume in cubic feet by .8. 

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cistern or other 
vessel, multi-biy the volume in cubic feet by 7.5. 
21 



310 ARITHMETIC 

Rule. — To find the number of barrels in a cistern, multiply 
the volume in cubic feet by ^. 

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical vessel, 
multiply the square of the diameter in inches by the height in 
inches, and that product by .0034- 



GAUGING OF CASKS 

A cask resembles two frustums of cones with their 
larger bases placed together. 

The bung diameter of a cask is the diameter measured 
half way between the two ends; it is usually the greatest 
diameter. 

The mean diameter of a cask is the mean between the 
bung diameter and the head diameter. The mean 
diameter is found by adding together the head diameter 
and bung diameter and dividing the sum by 2. 

Rule. — To find the number of gallons in a cask, multiply the 
square of the mean diameter in inches by the length in inches, 
and that product by .003 4- 

Example.— The diameter of a cask is 27 in. at the 

head, 2>2i in. at the bung, and the cask is 3 ft. long; 

how many gallons will it hold? 

27+33 
Solution. — Mean diameter = — ^-^ = 30 in. Length = 3 ft. 

= 36 in. Capacity = 302 x 36 X .0034 = 110. 16 gal. 

To find the number of liters in the cask, multiply by 
.0129 instead of .0034. If the cask is partly filled, stand 
it on end, find the mean diameter of the part filled, 
multiply its square by the height, and that product by 
.0034. 



COAL AND HAY 

A ton (2,000 lb.) of Lehigh coal, egg size, measures 
345^ cu. ft. in the bin; Schuylkill coal, 35 cu. ft.; pink- 
gray and red-ash coal, 36 cu. ft.; Wyoming coal, 31 cu. ft. 

The bulk of a ton of hay is dependent on the pressure 
to which it is subjected. Roughly speaking, a ton of 



POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 311 

hay lying unpressed measures 500 cu. ft.; when in 
a small stack, 400 cu. ft.; and in mows compressed with 
grain, or in well-settled stacks, 300 cu, ft. 

Shipping Ton.— Freight on very light articles is usually 
estimated by the space occupied. 

United States shipping ton 
40 cu. ft.= { 31.16 imperial bushels 

.32.143 United States bushels 
1 British shipping ton 
42 cu. ft.= { 32.719 imperial bushels 

.33.75 United States bushels 



ft.= |3] 
l3S 

'■-{: 



POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 

In the following list are given the approximate dis- 
tances by postal routes and the time by rail between New 
York City and the points indicated. The times men- 
tioned are subject to changes due to varying conditions. 

Cities in the United States Miles Hours 

Albany, N. Y 142 3^^ 

Atlanta, Ga. 882 24J4 

Baltimore, Md 188 6 

Binghamton, N. Y 207 5^ 

Bismarck N. Dak .- 1,738 60^ 

Boise, Idaho 2,736 92^4 

Boston, Mass 217 7 

Buffalo, N. Y 410 9^ 

Cape May, N. J....... 172 

Carson City, Nev 3,036 109J4 

Charleston, S. C 804 21^ 

Chattanooga, Tenn 853 32 

Cheyenne, Wyo 1,899 54 

Chicago, 111. 90O 23 

Cincinnati, Ohio 744 23 



312 POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 

Cities in the United States Miles 

Cleveland, Ohio 568 

Columbus, Ohio 624 

Concord, N. H 292 

Deadwood, S. Dak 1,975 

Denver, Colo 1,930 

Des Moines, Iowa 1,257 

Detroit, Mich 743 

Galveston, Tex 1,789 

Harrisburg, Pa 182 

Hartford, Conn 112 

Helena, Mont 2,423 89 

Hot Springs, Ark 1,367 55 

Indianapolis, Ind 808 23 

Jacksonville^ Fla 1,077 32 

Kansas City, Mo 1,302 38% 

Louisville, Ky 854 30 

Memphis, Tenn 1,163 40 

Milwaukee, Wis 985 29^ 

Montgomery, Ala 1,057 SOJ^i 

Montpelier, Vt 327 10^ 

New Orleans, La 1,344 40 

Omaha, Neb 1,383 43 

Philadelphia, Pa 90 3 

Pittsburg, Pa 431 13 

Portland, Me 325 12 

Portland, Ore 3,181 114^ 

Prescott, Ariz 2,724 94 

Providence, R. 1 189 6 

Richmond, Va 344 11^ 

St. Louis, Mo 1,048 29 

St. Paul, Minn 1,300 37 

Salt Lake City, Utah 2,452 7^4 

San Francisco, Cal 3,250 106 

Santa Fe, N. Mex 2,173 82 

Savannah, Ga 905 26 

Scranton, Pa 146 4J4 

Tacoma, Wash 3,209 102 

Topeka, Kans 1,370 48 



POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME 313 

Cities in the United States Miles Hours 

Trenton, N. J 57 2 

Vicksburg, Miss 1,288 SO 

Vinita, Okla 1,412 42 

Washington, D, C 228 614 

Wheeling, W. Va 496 WA 

Wilmington, Del 117 5 

Wilmington, N. C. 593 20 

The postal distances and time between New York and 
foreign cities are as follows: 

By Postal Route to Miles Days 

Adelaide, via Vancouver 12,845 31 

Alexandria, via London 6,150 12 

Amsterdam, via London 3,985 8 

Antwerp, via London 4,000 8 

Athens, via London ". 5,655 11 

Bahia, Brazil 5,870 14 

Bangkok, Siam, via San Francisco 12,900 43 

Batavia, Java, via London 12,800 34 

Berlin, via London 4,385 9 

Bombay, via London 9,765 22 

Bremen, via London 4,235 8 

Buenos Ayres 8,045 24 

Calcutta via London , 11,120 24 

Cape Town, via London 11,245 25. 

Constantinople, via London 5,810 11 

Florence, via London 4,800 9 

Glasgow 3,370 8 

Grey town, via New Orleans 2,815 7 

Halifax, N. S 645 2 

Hamburg, via London 4,340 9 

Hamburg, direct 4,820 9 

Havana 1,366 3 

Hong Kong, via San Francisco 10,590 27 

Honolulu, via San Francisco 5,645 12 

Liverpool • 3,540 7 

London, via Queenstown 3,740 7 

London, via Southampton 3,760 8 

Madrid, via London 4,925 9 



314 INFORMATION OF INTEREST 

By Postal Route to Miles Days 

Melbourne, via Vancouver 12,265 30 

Mexico City (railroad) 3,750 5 

Panama 2,355 6 

Paris 4,020 8 

Rio de Janeiro 6,204 17; 

Rome, via London 5,030 9 

Rotterdam, via London 3,935 8 

St. Petersburg, via London 5,730 9 

San Juan, Porto Rico 1,730 6 

Shanghai, via San Francisco 9,920 25 1 

Stockholm, via London 4,975 10 ' 

Sydney, via Vancouver 11,570 29 

Valparaiso, via Panama 5,910 22 

Vienna, via London 4,740 9 

Yokohama, via San Francisco 7,345 20 



INFORMATION OF INTEREST 

Birthday Stone for Each Month of the Year.— Stones] 
of different kinds are often considered proper for birth- 
days coming in different months of the year. They are:j 
Garnet for January, amethyst for February, bloodstone- 
for March, diamond for April, emerald for May, pearl 
for June, ruby for July, sardonyx for August, sapphire 
for September, opal for October, topaz for November, and 
turquoise for December. 

Names of Wedding Anniversaries.— Wedding anniver- 
saries are named according to the name of the article 
considered appropriate for anniversary presents at dif- 
ferent times. The names are: 
1st year— Cotton 15th year— Crystal 

2d year— Paper 20th year— China 

3d year — Leather 25th year — Silver 

5th year— Wooden . 30th year— Pearl 

7th year— Woolen 40th year— Ruby 

10th year— Tin 50th year— Golden 

12th year— Silk and fine 75th year— Diamond 

linen ,. ^i 



INFORMATION OF INTEREST 315 

Care of Birds and Fish.— Caged birds, especially the 
canary, should always be kept in good cages that are 
perfectly clean and free from vermin. The greater part 
of all the cages now used have a hanger at the top of 
the cage, which can be removed. This should be sepa- 
rated from the cage at least once every month. Here is 
where the red mites hide. The best kind of roosts or 
perches can be made from the smaller branches of the 
elder. The outer covering should be scraped and the 
pith removed from the center of the pieces of elder. 
The red mites crawl into these perches, which can be 
scalded once a week vi^ith hot water, thus destroying the 
mites. 

The best seed for canaries is Sicilian canary seed and 
a little German rape seed. A small portion of hemp seed 
may be added. Never mix the hemp seed with the other 
seed; if you do, the birds will throw the other seed out 
in their diligent search for the hemp seed. Hemp seed 
is too fattening for them to have much of it. Feed the 
hemp seed separate. Canaries must have some kind of 
green feed, and nothing is better for them than a few 
leaves of dandelion or lettuce. They should never be 
fed cabbage or heavy greens. 

It is a pleasure to have an aquarium in the house with 
iish and growing plants. The plants contained in the 
aquarium should be sufficiently numerous to throw off 
enough oxygen to supply the fish. The function of plant 
life in the water is to decompose the carbonic-acid gas 
under the action of sunlight, using the carbon to build 
up the structures and to liberate the oxygen which is 
necessary to the fish. Fish in breathing absorb the free 
oxygen in the water, and they also absorb it from the 
air. The proportion of oxygen or of air that water will 
contain varies with the temperature. Thus, for about 
every 16° drop in temperature water will take up and 
retain about double the volume of oxygen or of atmos- 
pheric air. Boiling the water expels the oxygen. When 
all of the oxygen is exhausted the water will no longer 
support the life of the fish. The cooler the water, the 



316 RULES OF BUSINESS 

greater amount of oxygen will there be and the greater 
number of fish can be kept in it. The fewer fish, and 
the more space there is in the aquarium, the better will 
the fish prosper. An aquarium should be kept clean 
and free from slimy deposits. The water should be 
changed frequently enough to keep it pure. 



RULES OF BUSINESS 

There are a few rules or guides for good business that 
can be safely followed at all times. It is always best, 
however, to ask advice of your banker or a lawyer of 
experience relative to financial matters that may cause 
a loss. 

If a note is lost or stolen, it does not release the 
maker; he must pay it if the consideration for which it 
was given and the amount can be proved. 

Notes bear interest only when so stated. 

Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents. 

Each individual in a partnership is responsible for the 
whole amount of the debts of the firm, except in cases 
of a special partnership. The word "limited" in con- 
nection with a firm name indicates that a limitation of 
responsibility for each member is fixed. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

An agreement without consideration of value is void. 

A note made on a Sunday is void, also one dated ahead 
of its issue. It may be dated back at pleasure. 

Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. 

A note by a minor is void in some states, and in others 
it is voidable on judicial decision. 

A contract made with a minor or a lunatic is void. 

A note obtained by fraud or from a person in a state 
of intoxication cannot be collected. 

It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. 

The acts of one partner binds the rest. 



RULES OF BUSINESS 317 

"Value received" is usually written in a note, and 
should be, but it is not necessary. If not written it is 
presumed by the law or may be supplied by proof. 

The maker of an "accommodation" bill or note (one 
for which he has received no consideration) having lent 
his name or credit for the benefit of the holder, is not 
bound to the person accommodated, but is bound to all 
other parties, precisely as if there were a good con- 
sideration. 

No consideration is sufficient in law if it be illegal in 
its nature. 

Checks or drafts must be presented for payment with- 
out unreasonable delay. 

An indorsee has a right of action against all whose 
names were on the bill when he received it. 

If the letter containing a protest of non-payment be 
put' into the post office, any miscarriage does uot affect 
the party giving notice. 

Notice of protest may be sent either to the place of 
business or residence of the party notified. 



CHECKS 

How to Draw Checks. — A check is merely an order for 
a bank to pay a stipulated sum of money to the person 
whose name appears on the check, from the funds of the 
drawer of the check. 

Checks may be made payable either to order or bearer. 
In the former case, the payee should be known to the 
proper bank officials, and must indorse the check before 
the money is paid. In case the check reads "pay to 
bearer," any one holding the check should indorse it, 
and if he is known to the bank, he is entitled to presei t 
it and receive the money stipulated. 

Every person who writes a check should be very care- 
ful to protect himself against dishonest intentions of the 
person to whom the check is issued. A check should 
always be written with pen and ink. Never use a lead 



318 RULES OF BUSINESS 

pencil when drawing a check. The amount which is 
stipulated on the check should be started as far to the left 
as possible so that no writing or figures could be inserted 
to increase the amount of the check. The space rernain- 
ing sJiould be filled in by a very heavy line so that 
nothing could be added after the amount inserted. The 
figures of a check should be plainly written and care 
should be taken that the figures correspond. Although a 
bank cannot be held responsible for the payment of a 
check made payable fo bearer, or wrong person, if the 
circumstances warrant such action, a bank may refuse to 
cash it until they are satisfied that it is the right party. 

Checks Should Be Presented for Payment as Soon as 
Possible. — The receiver of a check may avoid consider- 
able trouble or loss of money by presenting checks for 
payment as soon as possible after they are received. 
The drawer of a check usually prefers to have his checks 
paid as soon as possible, to avoid keeping track of out- 
standing checks. Should the holder of a check neglect 
to present it for payment at once and the bank should 
become insolvent, he cannot compel the bank to make 
good the loss he has sustained if more than the ordinary 
time has elapsed before he presents the check that is 
given him. 

Certified Checks. — A certified cheeky is a common check 
that has been certified by the cashier of the bank on 
which it is drawn; that is, he has written or stamped 
across the face, usually with red ink, the word "certi- 
fied," the date, and his signature. 

The certifying of a check is the same as accepting a 
draft, and makes the bank responsible for its payment, 
and not the drawer. Remember, that when you have a 
check certified it is at once deducted from your account; 
therefore, if you do not use it, you must deposit it to 
your credit before it can again be added to your account. 

Certificate of Deposit. — A certificate of deposit is a 
written acknowledgment of a bank that it has received 
frbm the person named a sum of money as a deposit, 
subject to withdrawal on demand and on surrender of 



RULES OF BUSINESS 319 

the certificate. Generally, persons holding certificates 
of deposit are not allowed to draw a check for all or 
part of it. 

Receipt. — A receipt is a written acknowledgment of 
having received a specified value, with the date, source 
of receipt, signature of the party that received the value, 
and such other particulars as may be necessary to make 
it plain and unquestionable. 



NOTES 



Note. — A note is an absolute promise, in writing, to 
pay on a certain date, or on demand, a specified sum of 
money to a person named therein, or to his order, or 
to the bearer, and is signed by the maker. 

Joint Note. — A joint note is one signed by two or more 
parties and reading, "We promise to pay." It is sup- 
posed that each party to the note has been equally 
benefited; therefore, only his proportionate share can be 
collected from each. 

A joint-and-several note reads, "We jointly and seve- 
rally promise to pay." In this form of note, the makers 
are united in the obligation, and the payee can collect 
from all the makers together, or the entire face of the 
note from any one of them, if he is worth that amount. 

Protests. — Have all the notes in your favor made pay- 
able at a bank; then, a few days before they become 
due, if not previously discounted, deposit them for collec- 
tion. The bank will then see that they are properly 
presented when due, and will protest if not paid. 

Protesting is a formal statement made by a notary 
public that the paper was presented for payment and 
payment refused. A notice of protest is sent to the 
maker and to each indorser. If there are indorsers and 
no protest is made, the indorsers in some states, are 
released. When there are no indorsers, it is quite com- 
mon to waive protest by writing on the back of such 
paper "Protest Waived." 



320 RULES OF BUSINESS 

Unless inscribed with the words "with interest," notes 
do not draw interest until after maturity; but if not 
paid at maturity, they draw interest at the legal rate 
until paid. 

Due Bill. — A due bill is a written acknowledgment of 
something due from one party to another. They are 
not usually made payable to order, are frequently with- 
out date, and seldom mention the name of the place 
or state. 



DRAFTS 

Sight Draft.— A sight draft is a draft drawn by one 
person on another, and payable on presentation, or at 
sight. They are treated as cash by those receiving them. 

Time Draft. — Time drafts are drawn payable a certain 
number of days after sight and to be of value must be 
accepted by the party on whom they are drawn. Accept- 
ance is shown by writing across the face, usually in red 
ink because of its prominence, the word "accepted," the 
date, and the signature of the acceptor. The due date is 
figured so many days after the date of acceptance, and 
not after the date on which it was drawn. 

Often there is seen attached to the end of a draft a 
slip reading, "No Protest." "Take this off before pre- 
senting." This informs the banker that the drawer does 
not wish the paper protested, and is done so that if the 
paper is not accepted, the drawer will not have to pay 
the protest fees. 

Bank Draft. — For convenience and safety in making 
remittance from one part of the country to another, in 
funds that are at par, and yet without actually trans- 
ferring the cash, bank drafts are bought from local banks 
and forwarded, instead of using checks, etc. 



RULES OF BUSINESS 321 

SIMPLE-INTEREST RULES 

4%. — Multiply the principal by the number of days to 
run, separate the right-hand figure from the product and 
divide by 9. 

5%. — Multiply by the number of days and divide by 72. 

6%. — Multiply by the number of days, separate the 
right-hand figure and divide by 6. 

8%. — Multiply by the number of days and divide by 45. 

9%. — Multiply by the number of days, separate the 
right-hand figure and divide by 4. 

10%. — Multiply by the number of days and divide 
by 36. 

12%. — Multiply by the number of days, separate the 
right-hand figure and divide by 3. 

The following method of computing interest for short 
terms is an accurate and speedy one: The interest on 
any sum for 60 days at 6 per cent, can be found by draw- 
ing a perpendicular line 2 places to the left of the deci- 
mal point of the principal. The result will be the 
interest in dollars and cents. Thus, the interest on. 
$2,035.45 for 60 days at 6% will be $20.35. 



DISCOUNT RATES 

The following table of equivalent discounts will be 
found useful by those in whose business several dif- 
ferent rates of discount are allowed from list prices: 

10 and 5 off=14H% off 

15 and 5 off=19>^%, off 

20 and 5 off=24% off 

20 and 10 off=28%, off 

25 and 10 off=32^% off 

30, 10, and 5 off=40i/T% off 

40, 10, and 5 off=48%o% off 

50 and 10 off =55% off 

60, 10, and 5 ofi=65Vo% off 

70, 10, and 5 off=742/oo% off 



322 



RULES OF BUSINESS 



YEARS AT WHICH A GIVEN AMOUNT WILL 
DOUBLE, AT SEVERAL RATES OF INTEREST 







At Compound Interest 




At 








Rate 








% 


Single 
Interest 


Compounded 


Compounded 

Semi- 

Annually 


Compounded 






Yearly 


Quarterly 


.1 


100 


69.666 


69.487 


69.400 


u 


66.66 


46.556 


46.382 


46.298 


2 


50.00 


35.004 


34.830 


34.743 


2§ 


40.00 


28.071 


27.899 


27.812 


3 


33.33 


23.450 


23.278 


23.191 


3§ 


28.57 


20.150 


19.977 


1«.890 


4 


25.00 


17.673 


17.502 


17.415 


41 


22.22 


15.748 


15.576 


15.490 


5 


20.00 


14.207 


14.036 


13.946 


5^ 


18.18 


12.946 


12.775 


12.686 


6 


16.67 


11.896 


11.725 


11.639 


61 


15.38 


11.007 


10.836 


10.750 


7 


14.29 


10.245 


10.075 


9.989 


7i 


13.33 


9.585 


9.914 


9.328 


8 


12.50 


9.006 


8.837 


8.751 


81 


11.76 


8.497 


8.346 


8.241 


9 


11.11 


8.043 


7.874 


7.788 


n 


10.52 


7.638 


7.468 


7.383 


10 


10.00 


7.273 


7.121 


7.026 


12 


8.34 


6.110 







LEGAL HOLIDAYS 323 



LEGAL HOLIDAYS 

Legal holidays are days set apart by statute or by 
executive authority for fasting and prayer, or those 
given over to religious observance and amusements, or 
for political, moral, or social duties or anniversaries, or 
merely for popular recreation and amusement under such 
penalties and provisions alone as are expressed in 
positive legislative enactments. 

In the United States there are no established holidays 
of a religious character having a legal status without 
legislation. The days established by statutory or by 
executive authority, which are observed as legal holi- 
days, are given in the list that follows: 

January 1. New Year's Day: In all the states and 
territories except Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 

January 8. Anniversary of the Battle of Neiv Orleans: 
In Louisiana. 

January 19, Lee's Birthday: In Alabama, Florida, 
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. 

February 12. Lincoln's Birthday: In Arizona, Connecti- 
cut, Colorado, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New 
York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Washington, and 
Wyoming. 

February 22. Washington's Birthday: In all the states 
and territories except Mississippi and New Mexico. 

March 2, Texas Independence Day: In Texas. 

April 6. Confederate Memorial Day: In Louisiana. 

April 19. Patriot's Day: In Massachusetts. 

April 21. Anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto: In 
Texas. 

April 26. Confederate Memorial Day: In Alabama, 
Florida, and Georgia. 

May 10. Confederate Memorial Day: In North Caro- 
lina and South Carolina. 



.1 



324 LEGAL HOLIDAYS 

May, Second Friday. Confederate Memorial Day: In 
Tennessee. 

May 20. Anniversary of the Signing of the Mecklenburg 
Declaration of Independence : In North Carolina. 

May 30. Decoration Day: In all the states and terri- 
tories except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, 
Idaho, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Care- • 
lina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. 

June 3. Jefferson Davis's Birthday: In Alabama, Florida 
Georgia, and South Carolina. 

July 4. Independence Day: In all states and territories.! 

July 24. Pioneer's Day: In Utah. 

August 16. Bennington Battle Day: In Vermont. [ 

September, First Monday. Labor Day: In all the 
states and territories except Arkansas, Louisiana, Mis- j 
sissippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, J 
and Vermont. 

September 9. Admission Day: In California. 

October 12. Columbus Day: In California, Colorado, 
Connecticut, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, , 
New York, and Pennsylvania. 

October 31. Admission Day: In Nevada. 

November 1. All Saints' Day: In Louisiana. 

November 25. Labor Day: In the parish of Orleans, 
Louisiana. 

November, Fourth Thursday. Thanksgiving Day: In 
all the states and territories. The exact day is fixed 
by the proclamation of the President of the United I 
States and the governors of the states. 

December 25. Christmas Day: In all the states and 
territories. 

Shrove Tuesday. Mardi Or as: In Alabama and in the 
parish of Orleans, Louisiana. 

Good Friday: In Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Min- 
nesota, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. 

Arbor Day: In Colorado, third Friday in April; Idaho,i 
last Monday in April; in Nebraska, April 22; Utah,! 
April 15. This day is observed in other states on dates 
appointed by the governors. 



r LEGAL HOLIDAYS 325 

General Election Day, being the Tuesday after the first 
Monday of November in every year when such elections 
are held is a holiday in Arizona, California, Florida, 

' Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, 
Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Ore- 
gon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 

I Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, 
Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 

Sundays are holidays, and also any day appointed by 
the governor in any of the several states as a fast day^ 
or a day for prayer. There are no statutory holidays ia 

' Mississippi, but by common consent the Fourth of July,. 
Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas are observed as such. 
In Kansas the only legal holidays by legislative enact- < 
ment are February 22, May 30, first Monday of Septem- 
ber, and Thanksgiving Day, but by common consent 
New Year's Day, Fourth of July, and Christmas are also 
observed. 

Saturday, after 12 o'clock noon, is a legal holiday 
throughout' the year in Connecticut, District of Columbia, 
Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, 
Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, and Washington; in Louisiana and Missouri, in 
cities of 100,000 inhabitants and over; in Ohio and Vir- 
ginia, in cities of 50,000 inhabitants and over; in Dela- 
ware, in the city of Wilmington and in Newcastle 
county, except St. George's Hundred, where Saturdays 
from June to September only are holidays; in South. 
Carolina, in Charleston county; and in Colorado, in 
Denver during June, July, and August. 

Holidays falling on Sunday are observed the day be- 
fore in Kansas, Mississippi, Nevada, Vermont, and West 
Virginia, and on the same day in Louisiana; but else- 
where in the United States, on the following Monday. 

In Canada the following are legal holidays in all the 
provinces: New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Mon- 
day, Christmas Day, the birthday of the reigning sov- 
ereign, any day appointed by proclamation for a public 
22 



326 CORRESPONDENCE 

holiday or a general fast or thanksgiving, and the day 
next following New Year's, Christmas, and the sov- 
ereign's birthday, when these days fall on Sunday. In 
Quebec, in addition to the above, the following are ob- 
served: The Epiphany, the Annunciation, the Ascension, 
Corpus Christi, St. Peter and St. Paul's Day, All Saints' 
Day, and Conception Day. 

In England and Ireland the bank holidays are: Good 
Friday, Easter Monday, the Monday in Whitsun week, 
the first Monday in August, sovereign's birthday, Christ- 
mas, and the 26th of December if a week day; in Scot- 
land, New Year's Day, Christmas (if either day fall on 
Sunday, then the following Monday), Good Friday, first 
Monday in May, first Monday in August, and the sov- 
ereign's birthday. In addition to the above, any day so 
proclaimed by the reigning sovereign is to be observed 
as a bank holiday throughout the United Kingdom, or 
in any part thereof. 



CORRESPONDENCE 



LETTER WRITING 

The im.portance of letter writing, both in business and 
as an edticational accomplishment, cannot be overesti- 
mated. Business must, to a large extent, be transacted 
by means of correspondence; and one of the leading 
requisites of business success is the ability to dis-. 
charge the important duties pertaining to correspondence ' 
in a manner satisfactory to all concerned. 

The essential parts of a letter are: 

1. Heading, including date. i 

2. Address. £- 

3. Salutation. i| 

4. Body. 

5. Complimentary close. 

6. Subscription, or signature. 

7. Superscription, or outside address. 



I 



CORRESPONDENCE 327 

The incidental parts are: 

1. The postscript, with its continuations or iterations, 
paulo-postscript, post-paulo-postscript, and so on. 

2. Nota bene. 

3. Enclosure. 

4. Stamp. 

5. Return directions. 

The writing of the place and date at the lower left- 
hand corner of the paper, at the end of a letter, though 
quite admissible and somewhat customary in the matter 
of social letters, is, in the case of business letters, 
annoying to those that desire to note at once the date 
of the letter. It is better not to indulge in any eccen- 
tricities in such matters. For people that do not have 
anything else to do it may be allowable; but busy 
people do not have time to look in unusual places for . 
headings, addresses, signatures, etc. 

The salutation is the greeting, as "Dear Sir," "Sir," 
"My dear George," and the like, with which it is usual 
to begin a letter. What the salutation shall be must be 
determined, of course, by the relation between the writer 
and the party addressed. The most formal, private, or 
unofficial salutations are "Sir" and "Madame." These are 
almost impersonal And belong to such persons as we may 
wish to accost with civility. "Sir" is the correct salu- 
tation in addressing officers of the government who have 
no special title inherent in the office they hold. When 
it is used the complimentary close should be "Yours 
respectfully," or something correspondingly distant. 

General Form.— The following letter shows the usual 
arrangement, of the various parts of an ordinary business 
letter. If the street address is given in the heading, the 
heading and date should be written in two lines; if 
the street address is not given, the heading and date 
should be written in one line. The address, if of more 
than two lines, should be neatly balanced. A colon 
should follow the salutation; a dash is often used after 
the colon, but this is unnecessary. 



328 CORRESPONDENCE 

(Heading and Date) 

540 Sewell St., Portland, Me,, 
(Address) February 22, 1912. 

Mr. John W. Playfair, 
President First National Bank, 
558 Jackson Boulevard, 
Chicago, 111. 

(Salutation) 
Dear Sir: 

(Body) 

Mr. George Williams of your city has called to interes 
me in the purchase of a large tract of timber and minin 
lands in Northern Wisconsin. Mr, Williams impresses 
me favorably, and his propositions appear quite reason- 
able on their face. 

I have, however, deferred giving him a final answer 
until I hear from you regarding his standing in business 
circles in Chicago. He speaks of you as an acquaintance, 
and since I claim you as a friend, your advice will be 
as welcome as it must be valuable. 

(Complimentary Close) 
I am, dear sir, 

Very sincerely yours, 
(Signature) 

William Hutcheson. 
The superscription is the outside address — the one writ 
ten on the envelope, and the one for the postmaster an 



i 



Return in S days to 
540 Sewell St., 
Portland, Me. 



Stamp 



Mr. John W, Playfair, 
President First National Bank, 
558 Jackson Boulevard, 

Chicagfo, 111. 



CORRESPONDENCE 329 

the letter carrier to note. Like the address, the super- 
scription consists of three parts: the name, the title, and 
the business address or residence. 

The accompanying illustration shows a specimen su- 
perscription- 

SUGGESTIONS 

The first and most important rule to be observed by a 
writer of a letter is to be courteous. 

Neatness. — Always be careful, in the writing of a 
letter, to avoid blots, corrections, or erasures. Make the 
letter perfect as to neatness, even if it has to be re- 
written. An essential as important as neatness is 
correct spelling. 

Brevity.— One of the essential qualities of business 
correspondence that cannot be too strongly dwelt upon 
is brevity, for business men have no time to waste, and 
appreciate conciseness of expression. Brevity of ex- 
pression, if combined with neatness, clearness, and 
courtesy always makes a good impression upon the 
true business man. One of the greatest helps to success 
in any walk of life is the ability to express ideas ac- 
curately and concisely. 

Deliberation.— No one should write a letter when 
angry, nor, as a rule, when inclined to say severe 
things. If one receives a letter provoking him to anger, 
it is better to wait a little before answering; then 
probably the style of his reply will be entirely changed. 
Words hastily spoken, and letters w^ritten in haste 
or anger, one usually v/ould like to recall. Hasty or 
vindictive words make enemies and endanger business, 
while kind words make and hold friends. Make it a 
rule never to write a letter when strongly excited. 

Many writers experience difficulty in the opening and 
closing sentences of a letter. The opening should be 
perfectly natural and should introduce the subject upper- 
most in the mind. Avoid in the opening such set 
phrases as "I now take my pen in hand to tell you that 
I am well, etc.," "I thought I would drop you a line 
to let you know, etc." A familiar letter usually ends 



330 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

with an expression of compliment or affection in addition 
to the complimentary close. 

Promptness of Answers.— From the standpoint of the 
recipient of the letter, correspondence demands close and 
courteous attention. Letters, especially business letters, 
should be answered with reasonable promptness. 

Date of Letter Answered.— The answer to a business 
letter should contain a reference to the date of the letter 
answered; thus, "In answer to your letter of the 10th 
inst." 

Enclosing Stamp.— A letter asking a favor or treating 
of business in which only the writer and not the re- 
cipient is interested, should have a stamp enclosed for 
an answer. 

Legibility.— Do not write so that your correspondent 
will be unable to read your letter, or meet with great 
difficulty in so doing. Sign your name to the letter, 
so that there can be no possible doubt as to the spelling. 
Some business men cultivate a characteristic signature, 
which they use for checks and business papers. Such 
a signature is often purposely almost illegible, and 
obviously should not be used for a letter except to a 
well-known correspondent. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



PREPARATION 

In every place where a large number of persons are 
employed and where accidents are liable to occur, a 
supply of articles needed to render first aid should be 
available. These should include one or more stretchers, 
bandages, absorbent cotton, carron oil (equal parts of 
raw linseed oil and lime water), splints, soap, towels, 
blankets, aromatic spirits of ammonia, etc. The neces- 
sary quantity of any of these or other articles depends 
on the nature and size of the works. 



J JRST AID TO THE INJURED 331 

Sterilizing. — Many disease germs may be killed by 
heat; others by chemicals called disinfectants, such as 
bichloride of mercury, carbolic acid, etc. The solutions 
used in washing wounds should be made up of about 
the following strengths: Bichloride of mercury, IS gr. 
to 1 qt. of water; or, liquid carbolic acid, 2 teaspoonfuls 
to 1 qt. of water. The substances should be thoroughly 
dissolved before the solution is used. 



ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES 

FAINTING 

Fainting, or swooning, with loss of sensation, motion, 
and consciousness, may result from a severe blow or 
wound, from loss of blood, from great emotion (extreme 
fear or joy), from electric shocks, etc. The patient be- 
comes pale, inanimate, and is in a condition of apparent 
death; if not soon relieved, death may result. 

The patient should be laid with the head lower than 
the feet, and ligatures or bands of some sort should be 




Fig. 1 

tied around the arms and legs close to the body, so as 
to confine the circulation to the trunk and head. The 
tongue should be kept out of the throat, in order to 
allow free access of air, and the respiration may be 



332 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

helped by pressing in and down on the ribs and chest 
and allowing the chest to expand by its own elasticity. 
Artificial Respiration. — The process just described is 
one form of artificial respiration, and may in some cases 
be effective. If the desired results are not soon obtained, 
place the patient on his back with a pad (a roll of cloth- 
ing will do) under the back just below the shoulders, 
so as to raise the pit of the stomach. The patient's 
tongue should be drawn out and held by an assistant, 
or, it should be fastened against the lower teeth by 
a rubber band passing under the chin or clasped be- 
tween the patient's teeth, the lower jaw being held up 
by a bandage tied over the head. Grasp the forearms 
half way between the elbows and wrists, and draw the 
arms back rather quickly but steadily in vertical planes 
until they meet above the patient's head, as in Fig. 1, 
and hold them thus for 2 sec. This motion draws the 
ribs up, expands the chest, and air enters. Now bring 
the arms back to the sides of the body, and press firmly 




Fig. 2 

on the sides and front of the chest over the lower ribs, 
as in Fig. 2; the object of this movement is to contract 
"the chest and force the air out of the lungs. If enough 
assistants are present, one can stand astride the patient 
and press firmly against the sides and top of the chest 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 333 

while the arms are held down along the sides. This 
series of movements, constituting one inspiration and 
one expiration, should be repeated about once every 
4 sec, or fifteen times per min., for V/z or 2 hr. if 
necessary, unless in the meantime a physician pro- 
nounces life extinct. While working over the patient 
prevent unnecessary crowding of persons, avoid rough 
usage, and do not allow the patient to remain on his 
back unless his tongue is secured. Under no circum- 
stances should the patient be held up by his feet, nor 
should he be placed in a warm bath unless under medical 
direction. 

TRAUMATIC SHOCK 

Severe injuries may sometimes result in traumatic 
shock (trauma meaning wound), in which the victim 
appears confused and listless and perhaps stupefied, but 
not unconscious. The pulses and respiration are per- 
ceptible, though feeble and irregular. Sometimes the 
bowels move involuntarily. Intelligence is not usually 
wholly lost, and the patient can be made to respond to 
questions if repeatedly urged. This condition may last 
a few moments or several hours, and may terminate in 
death. 

Place the patient in a horizontal position with head 
lowered, and warm him by rubbing and by using warm 
linen or blankets. Let him inhale the odor from dilute 
ammonia water. If he can swallow, give a little hot 
brandy and water with a few drops of ammonia water 
added; 1 teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in 
a wineglassful of water is also good. From 2 to 4 tea- 
spoonfuls of turpentine in a quart of water, as hot as 
may be used without discomfort, may be injected into 
the bowels, often with good results. 

Wounds consisting of severe bruises are sometimes 
characterized by numbness, coldness, and absence of 
bleeding until reaction begins. In such cases, use 
stimulants and antiseptics and keep the injured part as 
quiet as possible and protected by warm dressing. 



334 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

HEMORRHAGE, OR BLEEDING 

Hemorrhage, or bleeding, may come from the arteries, 
the veins, or the capillaries. The arteries are the 
channels through which blood flows from the heart to 
the various parts of the body, and the veins are the 
channels through which the blood returns to the heart. 
The capillaries form the network of very minute tubes 
through which the blood passes from the arteries to the 
veins and by which all the tissues of the body are 
nourished. 

Arterial hemorrhage is usually distinguished by the 
bright red color of the blood and the regular pulsations 
with which it issues from the blood vessels; venous 
hemorrhage can be known by the dark-blue tint of the 
blood and the steadiness of its flow; in capillary hemor- 
rhage, the blood has a reddish tint and exudes from the 
tissues or wells up from the surface of the wound. 
Internal hemorrhage may exist without any external flow 
of blood. 

After excessive loss of blood, the patient's face and 
lips turn pale; he experiences chills, cold sweats, nausea, 
frequent vomiting, irregular respiration, feeble pulse, 
dizziness, buzzing in the ears, and finally unconscious- 
ness, terminating either in death or in cessation of the 
bleeding. In the latter case, consciousness may soon 
return, but very often the tendency to fainting fits 
persists for a time. 

Capillary hemorrhage is ar- 
rested by bathing the 
wounded part in cold steril- 
ized water and bandaging it 
with a pad, or compress of 
PiQ 3 sterilized gauze or lint. 

Venous hemorrhage is 
more serious and cannot always be stopped by binding 
a pad over the wound; in this case, the lim.b must be 
bandaged on the side of the wound away from the 
heart. The limb should be raised and held above the 




FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 335 

rest of the body and the patient should be made to lie 
perfectly quiet. 

Arterial hemorrhage is more serious than either of the 
others. If a large artery or a number of small ones 
are ruptured, the blood may escape so rapidly that death 
occurs almost at once. Pressure enough to stop the flow 
should be applied to the artery where it passes over a 
bone between the wound and the heart. The location of 
the artery is revealed by the distinct pulsations. Pres- 




FiG. 4 

sure applied with the fingers will answer temporarily^ 
and this method affords a way of finding the proper 
spot on which to press. A knot or any hard substance, 
in a handkerchief or a bandage may then be placed on 
the spot, tied loosely around the limb, and twisted with 
a stick, as in Fig. 3, until bleeding ceases. The stick 
may be then be fastened with another bandage. 

The course of the main (brachial) artery in the arm is 
well indicated by the inner sleeve seam of a man's coat; 
this artery can be compressed by grasping the arm by 



336 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



either method (a) or (b), Fig. 4. The pressure should 
always be downwards against the bone and not against 




Fig. 6 



soft muscle. The subclavian artery supplying blood to 
the arm may be closed by applying pressure in the hol- 
low just above the collar bone, as shown in Fig. 5. 
The temporal artery runs up the side of the forehead, 
and may be closed by applying a pad, as in Fig. 6. 
The femoral artery runs from the groin down a little 
inside of the front of the leg about one-third the dis- 
tance to the knee, then passes through the muscles 
and approaches the surface again behind the knee. 





Fig. 7 



Fig. 8 



Pressure applied as at P, Fig. 7, may stop bleeding 
from a wound above the knee, and a pad applied as in 
Fig. 8 is applicable for a wound below the knee. 



I 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 337 

ELECTRIC SHOCK 

Electric shock may produce severe burns, unconscious- 
ness, or death, depending on the strength of the current 
through the body as well as on its duration and flow. 
If the skin is thin and moist and the contacts with the 
conductors good, comparatively low voltage, 220 or pos- 
sibly less, may be sufficient to send considerable current 
through the body. On the other hand, a person with 
thick, dry skin, as on the palms of the hands, may 
sometimes make slight accidental contact with a circuit 
of several thousand volts without serious results. A 
very small current through the region of the heart may 
paralyze its action and cause death; currents of greater 
density stimulate the heart to increased action, but 
paralyze the nerve centers controlling respiration and may 
cause death by suflrocation, the Same as in drowning. 

Accidental contact with an electric conductor should 
be broken as quickly as possible; if maintained until 
heart action ceases, as a result of suffocation, death 
invariably results. In breaking the contact (provided, 
of course, the power cannot be immediately turned off 
the circuit), use the feet to push the victim and the 
conductor apart — never the hands. Current passing 
from one foot through the legs and the other foot to 
ground does comparatively little injury, since the im- 
portant nerve centers and the heart are not in its 
path. As soon as the contact is broken, the victim, if 
he has not lost consciousness, soon recovers. If the 
victim is unconscious but has not ceased breathing, an 
effort should be made to revive him, the same as in an 
ordinary fainting fit. If respiration has ceased, artificial 
respiration should be tried and continued for some time, 
even though the heart action is so feeble as to be almost 
imperceptible. The first and most important requirement 
in producing respiration by artificial means is to hold 
the tongue so that it cannot obstruct the throat. 

Burns caused by contact with electric conductors 
should be protected with sterilized gauze. Such burns 



338 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

are generally deep, sometimes even carbonizing the 
bones, especially those of the fingers. They heal quickly, 
however — ordinarily in from 3 to 6 weeks. 

WOUNDS 

Before being used on a wound, all instruments, band- 
ages, etc., should be sterilized by heating in steam or 
boiling water or by baking or by treating with a germ- 
destroying solution. The water used in washing a 
wound should first be boiled, in fact nothing unsterilized 
should be permitted to come in contact with the wounded 
surface. The germs entering a wound from the skin of the 
patient or from the object that produced the wound may 
be removed by thoroughly washing with sterilized water, 
and the sterilized dressings will prevent further infection. 

The first treatment of a wound includes checking the 
bleeding; the removal of all foreign matter and a 
thorough washing; drawing the lips of the wound to- 
gether or gently straightening bruised or torn flesh; 
applying several layers of sterilized gauze, with absorb- 
ent cotton next the wound if it is likely to bleed or 
discharge, and holding all in place with a suitable 
bandage. Sterilized adhesive strips are sometimes nec- 
essary to hold the wound together. 

FRACTURES 

The signs of fracture are: (1) Loss of power in the 
limb, or part, injured. (2) Pain and swelling at the 
seat of the injury. (3) Distortion of the injured limb 
— it will be longer or shorter than the other or will lie 
in some unnatural position. By gentle pulling, the limb 
may be brought back to its natural shape, but on being 
released will immediately return to the distorted posi- 
tion. (4) On gently moving the limb, a grating sensation 
(crepitation) may be felt where the ends of the broken 
bone rub against each other. (5) If near the surface, 
the break may be felt from the outside. A fracture 
should be handled with extreme gentleness; rough usage 
may do much harm. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



339 



Before attempting to move a patient suffering from 
fracture, the injured part should be supported in a rigid 




Fig 9 



position by tying on splints. Almost any substance stiff 
enough to support the injured part will answer for a 
temporary splint; for example, a stocking leg or a coat 
sleeve filled with earth, sand, moss, hay, chaff, or paper 
and securely tied at each end, a barrel stave, a piece 
of board, a roll of paper, etc. If hard substances are 
used for splints, the leg should be padded. If feasible, 
the splints should extend past the nearest joints, and 
should be securely bandaged so that both the fracture 
and the joints are held 
rigid, as in Fig. 9. 

Until the physician comes, 
a fractured jaw should be 
held in place by a bandage 
passed under the chin and 
over the head. If the collar 
bone is broken, the arm 
should be raised gently, and. 
a pad made by tightly roll- 
ing a handkerchief or a piece 
of cloth should be placed 
in the armpit; the forearm 
should be supported horizontally across the chest by a 
large arm sling, and the arm and sling should be held 
firmly in position by a broad bandage placed around the 




Fig. 10 



340 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

body and just above the elbow. Fractured ribs may be 
temporarily treated by fastening broad bandages around 
the body, tying the knot on the side opposite the frac- 
ture, as in Fig. 10. 

DISLOCATIONS AND SPRAINS 

A dislocation is the displacement of the bones of a joint. 
Ordinarily, a physician is needed, and little can be done 
before his arrival except to make the patient as com- 
fortable as possible. 

A sprain should be kept very quiet. If possible, keep 
the injured member in water as hot as can be borne 
for iy2 hr. or more; then bandage with moderate firmness 
in such a manner as to prevent any movement of the 
joint, using splints for this purpose if necessary. 

EFFECTS OF HEAT 

Burns. — The general treatment of a burn consists in 
relieving the pain, in combating the depression, and 
increasing the warmth of the patient. The pain may 
usually be relieved by excluding the air from the burned 
portion; stimulants should be given, if necessary, to 
relieve the depression. A covering of flour Aiay be 
spread over the burned surface; or bicarbonate of soda, 
either in the form of paste or powder, can be used; any 
oil, such as sweet oil, raw linseed oil, or carron oil, or 
a dressing, such as vaseline, cold cream, etc., is 
effective. 

In removing the clothing from over a burn or in 
dressing it, the blisters should not be broken. If any 
clothing adheres, it should be saturated with oil and 
allowed to remain. The patient should not be exposed 
to cold. 

Heat exhaustion is generally accompanied by weakness, 
cool skin, pale face, weak voice, rapid and feeble pulse, 
increased respiration, dim vision, and possibly by un- 
consciousness. The patient should be placed in a 
horizontal position with the head low, and stimulants 
and hot applications should be administered. Occasional 
doses of brandy should be given, also a teaspoonful of 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 341 

aromatic spirits of ammonia in a little hot milk or 
water every half hour. If the patient cannot swallow, 
these remedies may be injected into the rectum. 

Sutistrokc, which may occur in any hot, moist tem- 
perature, is accompanied by high fever. In a few cases, 
unconsciousness and death come very quickly; but 
usually the progressive symptoms are intense headache, 
dizziness, oppression, nausea, vomiting, occasionally 
diarrhea, and unconsciousness with delirium and rest- 
lessness. The face is flushed, the eyes bloodshot, the 
skin very hot and dry (temperature from 107° to 112° F.), 
the breathing labored and sometimes noisy, and the 
pulse frequent and full. 

Both the symptoms and the treatment are directly 
opposite those for heat exhaustion. In cases of sun- 
stroke, every effort should be made to reduce the 
excessive bodily temperature. Rubbing with ice, a 
cold bath, a cold pack, and cold rectal injections are 
all good. 



RESTORING OF APPARENTLY 
DROWNED PERSONS 



TREATMENT WHEN SEVERAL ASSIST- 
ANTS ARE AT HAND 

As soon as the patient is taken from the water, expose 
the face to the air, toward the wind if there is any, and 
wipe dry the mouth and nostrils; rip the clothing so as 
to expose the chest and waist, and give two or three 
quick, smarting slaps on the chest with the open hand. 
If the patient does not revive, proceed immediately 
to expel water from the stomach and chest, as follows: 
Separate the jaws and keep them apart by placing be- 
tween the teeth a cork or small bit of wood; turn the 
patient on his face, a large bundle of tightly rolled 
clothing being placed beneath the stomach (see Fig. 1); 
23 



342 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



press heavily on the back over the stomach for % min., 
or as long as fluids flow freely from the mouth. 

To Produce Breathing.— Clear the mouth and throat of 
mucus by introducing into the throat the corner of a 
handkerchief wrapped closely around the forefinger; 
turn the patient on the back, the roll of clothing being 
so placed as to raise the pit of the stomach above the 
level of the rest of the body (see Fig. 2). Let an 
■essistant, with a handkerchief or piece of dry cloth, 
draw the tip of the tongue out of one corner of the mouth 
(which prevents the tongue from falling back and 




Fig. 1 

choking the entrance to the windpipe), and keep it 
projecting a little beyond the lips. Let another assistant 5 
grasp the arms just below the elbows and draw them 
steadily upwards by the side of the patient's head, and 
to the ground, the hands nearly meeting (which enlarges 
the capacity of the chest and induces inspiration). 
While this is being done, let a third assistant take a , 
position astride the patient's hips, with his elbows rest- 
ing on his own knees, his hands extended ready for 
action. Next, let the assistant standing at the head turn 
down the patient's arms to the side of the body 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 343 

(see Fig. 3), the assistant holding the tongue changing 
hands, if necessary, to let the arm pass. Just before 
the patient's hands reach the ground, the man astride 
the body will grasp the body with his hands, the balls 
of the thumbs resting on either side of the pit of the 
stomach, the fingers falling into grooves between the 
short ribs. Now, using his knees as a pivot, he will 
at the moment the patient's hands touch the ground 
throw (not too suddenly) all his weight forwards on* 
his hands, and at the same time squeeze the waist 
between them, as if he wished to force something in 
the chest upwards out of the mouth; he will increase 




Fig. 2 

the pressure while he slowly counts one, two, three, 
four (about 5 sec), then suddenly let go with a final 
push, which will spring him back to his first position. 
This completes expiration. 

At the instant the pressure is taken from the waist 
the man at the patient's head will again steadily draw 
the arms upwards to the sides of the patient's head, as 
before (the assistant holding the tongue again changing 
hands to let the arm pass, if necessary), holding them 
there while he slowly counts one, two, three, four 
(about 5 sec). 



544 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



Repeat these movements, deliberately and persevef- 
ingly, 12 to 15 times in every minute — thus imitating the 
natural motions of breathing. 

If natural breathing is not restored after a trial of 
the bellows movement for the space of about 4 min., 
then turn the patient a second time on the stomach, 
rolling the body in the opposite direction from that in i 
which it was first turned, for the purpose of freeing 
the air passage from any remaining water. Continue 
the artificial respiration from 1 to 4 hr., or until the 
patient breathes, according to the preceding instructions; i 




Fig. 3 



and for a time, after the appearance of returning life, 
carefully aid the short gasps until deepened into full 
breaths. Continue the drying and rubbing, which should 
have been unceasingly practiced from the beginning by 
assistants, taking care not to interfere with the means 
used to produce breathing. Thus, the limbs of the 
patient should" be rubbed, always in an upward direction 
toward the body with firm, grasping pressure and energy, 
using the bare hands, dry flannels, or handkerchiefs, and 
continuing the friction under the blankets or over the 
dry clothing. The warmth of the body can also be 
promoted by the application of hot flannels to the 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 345 

stomach and armpits and bottles or bladders of hot wa- 
ter, heated bricks, etc. to the limbs and soles of the feet. 

After Treatment. — When breathing has been estab- 
lished, let the patient be stripped of all wet clothing, 
wrapped in blankets only, put to bed comfortably 
warm, but with free circulation of fresh air, and left to 
perfect rest. Give whisky, or brandy, and hot water 
in doses of a teaspoonful, or a tablespoonful, according 
to the weight of the patient, or any other stimulant at 
hand, every 10 or 15 min, for the first hour, and as 
often thereafter as may seem expedient. After reaction 
is fully established, there is great danger of con- 
gestion of the lungs, and if perfect rest is not maintained 
for at least 48 hr. it sometimes occurs that the patient 
is seized with great difficulty of breathing, and death 
is liable to follow unless immediate relief is afforded. 
In such cases, apply a large mustard plaster over the 
breast. If the patient gasps for breath before the 
mustard takes effect, assist the breathing by carefully 
repeating the artificial respiration. 

The foregoing treatment should be persevered in for 
some hours, as it is an erroneous opinion that persons 
are irrecoverable because life does not soon make its 
appearance. 



MODIFICATION OF TREATMENT 
To Produce Respiration.— If no assistant is at hand 
and one person must work alone, place the patient on 
his back with the shoulders slightly raised on a folded 
article of clothing; draw forward the tongue and keep 
it projecting just beyond the lips; if the lower jaw 
be lifted, the teeth may be. made to hold the tongue in 
place; it may be necessary to retain the tongue by pass- 
ing a handkerchief under the chin and tying it over 
the head. Grasp the arms just below the elbows and 
steadily draw them upwards by the sides of the patient's 
head to the ground, the hands nearly aaaeeting, as shown 



346 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 



in Fig. 1. Next, lower the arms to the sides and 
press firmly downwards and inwards on the sides and 




Fig. 1 

front of the chest over the lower ribs, drawing toward' 
the patient's head, as shown in Fig, 2. Repeat these- 
movements 12 to 15 times every minute, etc. 




Fig. 2 

Remarks.— Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons' 
round the body, especially if in an apartment. 

Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet. 

On no account place the body in a warm bath, unless.! 
under medical direction, and even then it should be 
employed only as a momentary excitant. 



NIKNIORANDA 



NIKMORANDA 



NIKMORANDA 



NIKMORANDA 



NIENIORANDA 



NIEMORANDA 



IMENIORANDA 



MEMORANDA 



Promotion 
Advancement in Salary 

and 

'Business Success = 



Secured 
Through the 

POULTRY FARMING 

Poultry Breeding 

General Farming 

Soil Improvement 

Farm Crops 

LIVESTOCK AND DAIRYING 

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
or THE 

International 
Correspondence Schools 

International Textbook 
Company, Proprietors 

SCRANTON. PA.. U. S. A. 

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AN I.C.S. COURSE TURNS FAILURE INTO SUCCESS 

S. R. Emerick, 7ZZ W. 2d St., Shelbyville, Ind.: "The 
day that the I.C.S. knocked at my door, I was not in 
any position to make money, in fact I was not fit for 
anything. The day I enrolled for my Poultry Farming 
Course was the best day of my life, for it has made a 
man of me. I am now my own employer, being the 
owner of "The Natural Poultry Yard," having taken up 
the breeding of utility birds and breeding for egg pro- 
duction. The Lesson Papers of my Course are my busi- 
ness guides. Any one who will follow the instructions as 
set forth in the Course cannot help but succeed, for the 
Lesson Papers are easy to understand and to remember. 
Any one who thinks of going into the poultry business 
should first let the I.C.S. prepare him for success." 



AN I.C.S. COURSE IS BEST 

A. E. Eastman, 47-51 Birch St., Manchester, N. H. : 
"Your Course in Poultry Farming treats the subject thor- 
oughly in all its branches. Although I have read many 
poultry books and am a subscriber to several poultry- 
papers, I received many valuable suggestions from the 
Course that I have been unable to obtain from any other 
source. I can cheerfully recommend your Course of in- 
struction to any one desiring a full knowledge of poultry 
raising." 



GAINED $1.50 PER BIRD 

John Clark, Box 8, Norman Place, Tenafly, N. J.: 
'I have found your Poultry Farming Course very bene- 
ficial to me. Before I took up the Course I was losing- 
money on my birds, but this past year I have gained an 
average of $1.50 per bird. This I would not have been 
able to do if I had not taken your Course." 



A GRADUATE'S SUCCESS 

W. A. Slater, Box 115, Jamestown, N. Y. : "Your 
I.C.S. Poultry Course I found very practical and a benefit 
to me in many ways. When I started into the chicken 
business, the second year I lost 50 per cent, of my stock. 
After graduating from your Course, I have this year 
raised 95 per cent, of the chicks hatched and have suc- 
ceeded in getting more eggs from my flocks than ever 
ibefore. I am now manager of Slater's Poultry Farm." 



24 



Failed Repeatedly — Now 
Successful 

I cannot recommend your Course in Poultry 
Husbandry too highly, as it has made me a suc- 
cess after repeated failures. It is the most 
complete Course in Poultry Husbandry that 
has ever come to my notice. It covers every 
branch and detail of poultry farming. I have 
bought about every book advertised, the writers 
of which gave an outline of how they ran their 
farms but stopped at the gate, but your Course 
taught me how to raise my own poultry and run 
my little farm. Your Course taught me what 
to do and why to do it. I am no longer in the 
dark concerning poultry. My hens laid 70 per 
cent, more eggs in the first half of this year 
than they ever laid in a whole year before. 
Your lessons on diseases of poultry have saved 
many a growing chick for me this season. My 
loss of young chicks this season through natural 
causes has been less than 7 per cent, of all chicks 
hatched. Last season my loss from natural 
causes was about 60 per cent. 

Every person that contemplates going into 
the poultry business, or those who have failed, 
should enroll in yoiir Schools, for it will make 
one a success from the start, and it will make a 
success out of a failure. 

Wm. T. Scheide, 

R. F. D. 1, Lima, Ohio. 



AN I.C.S. COURSE WOULD HAVE SAVED HIM $5,000 

Walter B. Davis, Davis Poultry Farm, Kings Highway 
and E. 23d St., Brooklyn, N. Y. : _ "I have about com- 
pleted your Course on Poultry Farming and I beg to state 
that I consider it the greatest asset a poultry farmer can 
have to begin with. It covers the details in every way. 
From my own personal experience I can safely say that 
had I been familiar with this Course a year ago I would 
have saved $5,000 on my poultry farm. (This figure is a 
conservative estimate.)" 

DOUBLES HIS SALARY 

Paul Geluk, c/o Patterson Ranch, Oxnard, Calif. : "I 
Vi^as a foreman in the Dundee Cheinical Works when I 
decided to enroll for the Complete Poultry Course. At 
the present time I have charge of the Poultry Depart- 
ment for the Patterson Ranch Company at Oxnard, Calif. 
My salary since the time of enrolment has been doubled. 
While I did ciot have much education before enrolling, I 
experienced no difficulty, as your Lesson Papers are 
easy to learn. All the advancement I have made is en- 
tirely through my I.C.S. Course, as I never handled any 
poultry before I took charge here." 

A CITY MAN'S SUCCESS 
J. K. Shaughnessy, Federal St., Agawam, Mass.: "I 
had always hankered for country life and chickens. If 
any man will invest in the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course 
he will have no trouble to make a success of the busi- 
ness. My present position, secured through your Stu- 
dents' Aid Department, is that of manager and half 
owner of the Sanitary Poultry Yards. We have a ca- 
pacity of 1,600 layers and expect to increase each year. 
I am dry picking all my market stock and am getting 
ten cents more per pound than any man aroun^ this 
section and also top prices for my eggs." 

GAINED A POSITION AS MANAGER 

C. W. Larson, R. F. D. No. 3, Box 40- A, St. Paul, 
Minn.: "I was working as a clerk when I enrolled with 
the I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming Course. I would 
strongly advise any one who contemplates going into the 
poultry industry to take up this Course which will assure 
him all success. It was because I was known to be a 
student of your Course that I- was able to secure a posi- 
tion as manager of the Victoria Poultry Farm, an up-to- 
date plant, at a good salary. You are at liberty to refer 
prospective students to me." 



The I. C. S. a Public 
Benefactor 

I have just received my Diploma in your 
Agricultural Course, and am much pleased 
with the painstaking manner in which my 
Instruction Papers were handled by your people. 
The proposition, in a nutshell, is that, if the 
student does his (or her) part, the I. C. S. will 
do theirs. 

The benefits to be derived from a Course in 
Agriculture in the I. C. S. are manifold; the 
most important, perhaps, is that it teaches the 
tiller of the soil to grow not only a better crop, 
but reaUze a greater production, as well as to 
do it with a great deal less of labor and expense, 
thereby making the tilling of the soil more of 
a pleasure than a drudge. Farmers, as well 
as others, are waking up to the truth that 
scientific farming is the only proper method to 
pursue, especially in these days of worn-out 
land, problems of drainage, and other things 
too numerous to mention. In this connection, 
your instruction on manures is worth the price 
of the whole Course. I might say the same of 
your instruction on drainage, etc. 

I have endeavored to make my letter brief, 
but, on account of the great scope or mag- 
nitude of your Agricultural Course, it would 
be difficult to say it all upon a hundred sheets 
of paper of this size. 

Any one who can show how two plants can 
be grown where but one could be made to grow 
before, and with less labor, expense, etc., is no 
less than a public benefactor, and this you do 
in your Agricultural Course. 

Wayne Canfield 
City Hall, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 



PAID FOR HIS COURSE WITH 15 HENS 

Wilbur H. Dresher, Jeddo, Pa., writes that he has been 
able, through the knowledge gained from our Poultry 
Farming Course, to make 15 hens pay the price of his 
Course in less than 1 year. He praises the Schools for 
teaching him how to reduce his feed bills through scien- 
tific feeding, and for showing him how to take care of 
the health of his flock. 

LABORER BECOMES SUPERINTENDENT 

F. B. Oliver, Smithville Flats, N. Y: "I have been 
employed in the poultry business nearly the entire time 
since I enrolled in the I.C.S. for the Poultry Farming 
Course and my monthly salary has been substantially 
increased. I have likewise advanced from a farm laborer 
to superintendent of a poultry plant. My Course has 
been so very beneficial to me that I intend to enroll for 
the Agricultural Course." 

PRAISES COURSE 

H. S. Ferguson, Manager, Deep Fork Dairy, Okmulgee, 
Okla.: "I have taken a Course in Soil Improvement, 
Farm Crops, Livestock and Dairying with the Interna- 
tional Correspondence Schools and can truly recommend 
same to any one who wishes to take up such a Course. 
I owe what I am to the Course and am sure any one may 
be benefited the same as myself. It does not require a 
college education to take a Course with this School, as 
they are willing to help you with anything you do not 
fully understand. Give them a trial and be convinced." 

NOW PROPRIETOR 

Ray L. Chamberlin, South Road, Orange, Mass., was 
earning a small salary when he enrolled for the Com- 
plete Poultry Course. Since receiving his Diploma he 
has become manager and half owner of the Wyolette 
Poultry Yards. He declares that the lessons on diseases 
and enemies of poultry are worth the price of the whole 
Course; also, that the lesson on poultry feeding has 
made a big increase in his egg yields. 

NOW MANAGER 

Wm. M. Freshley, Madison, Ohio, declares that he has 
gained considerable help from his I.C.S. Poultry Farming 
Course. He is now proprietor of the Silver Campine 
Farm. He recommends the Course to poultrymen. as well 
as to beginners. 



I 



Salary More Than 
Doubled 



E. A. BAKER, Proprietor F.W. EASTMAN, Manager 
P. O. Box, 2898 Greensboro 

Boston, Mass. Vermont 



BAKER FARM, GREENSBORO, VERMONT 
Pure Bred Holstein Cattle 



At the time I enrolled with the I.C.S. 
I was working as a farm hand. In two 
years' time my present position came to me 
at a salary more than twice what I was 
earning when I enrolled and a share in the 
profits besides. I cannot recommend the 
I.C.S. too highly. I have two students of 
the School in my employ and both, I feel 
sure, will succeed. P. W. Eastman 



HIS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS 

Obleton R. Reid, Lothair, Ky. : "I have been en- 
gaged in the poultry business for some years, without 
much success at first. Every year I would lose from 200 
to 300 young chickens. I was just stumbling along in 
the dark. Then I enrolled for your Complete Poultry 
Course. I consider this the best investment I ever made 
and advise any person who enters the poultry business 
to take a Course from the I.C.S. first. The knowledge 
that I have gained from your instruction has put me on 
the road to success. Instead of heavy losses I have this 
year, up to this time, lost only eight or ten chicks, and 
I have now (June 9th) about four hundred broilers ready 
for market." 



FOUND COURSE A MONEY SAVER 

Ernest Startup, 840 Whitney Ave., New Haven, Conn., 
began his I.C.S. studies while employed as a butler. He 
writes: "Having kept a small flock of fowls as a side 
line with some degree of success, I became determined to 
start a poultry farm of my own. In order to obtain more 
knowledge on the subject I enrolled for the Special 
Poultry Course. Now, although only half through the 
Course, I am more than delighted that I had sense 
enough to enroll. I find the Instruction Papers full of 
the very things one wants to know and they clearly 
show that the secret of success is nothing more than 
common sense and right methods. I honestly believe 
that had I started a poultry farm without taking this 
Course, I would have lost more money in the first week 
than I have paid for the Course." 



ADDED $500 PROFIT 
T. E. Castle, Virginia City, Mont.: "At the time I 
enrolled with the International Correspondence Schools 
for the Poultry Farming Course, I was conducting a 
small poultry plant as a side issue to my business of 
editing and managing a country newspaper. I had been 
handling poultry for a number of years and thought I 
was pretty well versed in the intricacies of the profes- 
sion, until I took up the study of my Course. I have 
learned more than I ever thought I knew before and 
have added $500 to my profits as proprietor of the Castle 
Hennery. It makes no difference how much one may 
know of the poultry business, if he will study your 
Course and apply its teachings he must necessarily make 
his business a success." 



Found His Course 
Profitable 

Harry L. Goodwin, Farmington, Me., was 
a printer 43 years old when he enrolled with 
the I. C. S. for the Poultry Farming Course. 
At that time he was interested in poultry 
and had been for years a writer for the press. 
He says that his Course has enabled him to 
secure much better results with Barred Rocks, 
Rhode Island Reds, and Indian Runner Ducks 
than he had formerly been able to attain. 
During the past year he has written 61 articles 
for publication in farming and poultry jour- 
nals, for which he is receiving payment, thereby 
considerably increasing his income. He feels 
that his Course has already paid for itself in 
more ways than one, and that it has been a 
very profitable investment. 



10 



HIS MOST SATISFACTORY INVESTMENT 

Martin J. Rooney, 408 S. Ohio St., Butte, Mont.: 
"The I.C.S. Course in Poultry Farming is thorough in 
every particular. I can honestly say that I consider the 
price I paid for the Course one of the most satisfactory- 
investments I ever made." 



WORTH FIVE TIMES ITS COST 

George A. Van Vleck, Hollis, L. I., N. Y. : "If I had 
paid five times the price of your Poultry Farming Course, 
I would consider it one of my best investments, since it 
has enabled me to get such results from my flock. I am 
now part owner of the Hillside Poultry Yards. No one 
needs to make mistakes for lack of knowledge who has 
mastered your Course." 



NOW MANAGER 

Albert E. Edwards, c/o The Davidson Farm, R. F. D. 
No. 1, Jermyn, Pa. : "Although I left school at the age of 
eleven to work in a grocery store, I had no difficulty in 
mastering your Poultry Farming Course. Without the 
knowledge I have obtained from it, I could not have taken 
the responsibility of handling 6,000 chicks at one time, 
ranging from two days to three months, in a colony system. 

Any one who is in the business, or intends to go into it, 
should take the Course, since he could save enough from 
his feed bill in a year to pay for it, besides producing 
better stock for better prices. I was employed as a carpet 
weaver on piece work. I am now the baby-chick man- 
ager on the C. P. Davidson farm." 



THE BEST MONEY HE EVER SPENT 
Chas. H. Carroll, 71 Clark St., Auburn, N. Y. : /'Al- 
though I was raised on a large farm where we kept fowls, 
I felt the need of your Poultry Farming Course. Since 
receiving my Diploma I can truly say that it was the best 
money I ever spent, as I can now manage any poultry 
farm with assurance of success." 



WORTH MORE THAN SEVEN YEARS' EXPERIENCE 

Fred. Busse, Carlstadt, N. J.: "I have had seven years' 
experience in the raising of poultry and I find that I have 
learned more in three months from your Poultry Farming 
Course than I found out in the whole seven years pre- 
vious. I recommend the Course as a great help to any one 
raising poultry whether on a large or small scale." 

11 



The Man Who Raised the 
$100,000 Hen 

Greensboro, Caroline County, Maryland 
EGLANTINE FARM PRODUCTS 

(Trade Mark) 

I am glad to say that it was my good 
fortune to have enrolled three years ago as 
a student in your Poultry Farming Course. 
The education gained from this study 
fitted me for the position of head poultry- 
man at Eglantine Farm. Since coming 
here I have had charge at all times of the 
poultry department. I have looked after 
the mating of the fowls, the incubating of 
the eggs, and the rearing of the chicks. 
It was my good fortune to select the pul- 
lets of our own breeding that have done 
so remarkably well in the North American 
Egg-Laying Contest. 

Frank Vadakin, 
Head Poultryman, Eglantine Farms, 
Greensboro, Md. 



12 



The Best Source 

BROOKVALE FARM 

The Home of Burr's 

WHITE ORPINGTONS 

G. M. BURR, Proprietor Meshoppen, Pa. 

It gives me pleasure to acknowledge the 
great assistance your thorough Course of 
Instruction in Poultry Farming has been 
to me. I had made several attempts to 
establish a poultry business, but met with 
many discouragements, and it was not 
until I had mastered the underlying prin- 
ciples of poultry raising that I met with 
any gratifying degree of success. I have 
now a well-established and successful 
poultry business, and was the winner of a 
sixth prize in the Cyphers Company's first 
annual contest of successful poultry grow- 
ers. I am using on my plant the Inter- 
national Sanitary Hover. I have had ex- 
cellent success with it, and, in my opinion, 
it is superior to any other brooder made. 
As a breeder of single-comb White Orping- 
tons, I find my I.C.S. Course full of valu- 
able information and practical instruction 
for all phases of the work. I know that 
any one going into the poultry business 
needs such instruction to make a success 
of it, as in my own case. 

G. M. Burr 



13 



Considers Course a Valu- 
able Investment 

I wish to express my appreciation not 
only for the value of your Poultry Course 
but also of the interest and personal at- 
tention given the student. For several 
years I have considered myself a compe- 
tent poultryman, well grounded in the 
business from incubation to the show- 
room, the market, or the laying house. 
After a year's study I find my knowledge 
on every subject broader and more prac- 
tical. From each lesson I have learned 
something of value and consider that any 
lesson, taken alone, would be well worth 
the money price of the entire Course. As 
a result of my year's application of the 
Poultry Course to my business, I find in- 
creased egg production, marked improve- 
ment in my laying stock and breeders 
from feeding correctly. I am breeding 
higher-quality stock and on the whole my 
plant is much improved. I know the 
Course to be practical and workable. It's 
scientific, yet easily understood by a plain 
man like myself. By my own experience 
I know it can be applied to any kind of 
plant with benefit. I believe it to be 
equally valuable to the beginner and the 
experienced. It has made and saved me 
many times its cost. I wish the I.C.S. all 
prosperity. Jack Gordon, 

571 Natoma St., San Francisco, Calif. 



14 



CANNOT FAIL TO SUCCEED 

Bert White, Box 477, Burlingame, Kans. : "Any one 
interested in poultry should invest in the Poultry Farm- 
ing Course with the I.C.S. From personal experience I 
can say that any one that will study the Course cannot 
fail to succeed. Each subject is well explained and 
easily understood. Since I began to study my Course 
the profits of my flock are rapidly increasing." 

WORTH MANY TIMES ITS COST 

William F. Halloway, River Side Farm, Newark, 
Md. : "I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty of 
the International Correspondence Schools for the assis- 
tance they have rendered me and the interest they have 
taken in my progress and success since I enlisted for a 
Course in Soil Improvement and Farm Crops. The In- 
struction Papers are very lucid and cover every point of 
importance with the utmost care, thereby making it 
easy for the person to grasp the meaning of what is 
taught. I think any one who contemplates making farm- 
ing his life vocation will find an International Corre- 
spondence Schools' Course in Agriculture worth many 
times the cost." 

HIS COURSE PROFITABLE 

J. C. Threnhauser, Fair Haven, Pa.: "I cannot ex- 
press my appreciation of the value of your Poultry Farm- 
ing Course, since the benefits derived are far beyond my 
anticipation. Since taking your Course I have spent 
some time at the government experiment station. Their 
course in some respects is quite like yours, but it is not 
so extensive or so complete. I have been offered two 
positions to take charge of poultry farms, both of which 
I declined, because I can do much better by caring for 
my own poultry." 

PUTS PRICELESS VALUE ON COURSE 

Ralph W. Weston, Box 26, Honolulu, Hawaii: "I 
can say in all faith that the methods and instruction set 
forth in the I.C.S. Poultry Farming Course are of price- 
less value. I have applied these methods in a small way 
and find the results as stated. The Course is worth 
many times the expenditure of time and money." 

EARNINGS INCREASED— HEALTH IMPROVED 

Ernest Browett, R. F. D. 4, Pitt Poultry Farm, 
McDonald, Pa.: "When enrolling I was a coal miner. 
Now I am managing the poultry farm of F. A. Thomassy. 
The Course has brought me better health and earnings. 
No one should try to raise a small or large flock of 
poultry without an I.C.S. Course." 

15 



Dollars and Cents 
Knowledge 

Having been a subscriber to your Mechan- 
ical Course in former years, I was pleased to 
learn that you were issuing a Course in Poultry 
Farming. Knowing the need of information 
on this subject, I subscribed for the Course. 

In reading and studying the first Instruction 
Papers, I began to realize the greatness and 
perfection of the Course. Step by step the 
student is led to proficiency and also I find that 
each step has been carefully examined before- 
hand from one standpoint — the question of dol- 
lars and cents. In this lies the crux of the mat- 
ter, the secret of success. 

Thomas H. Pollard 
916 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. 



16 



I.C.S. Course a Necessity 
Not a Luxury 



Secretary, Twin Valley Poultry Association 
and American Partridge Rock Club 

Breeder of 

IMPERIAL PARTRIDGE PLYMOUTH 

ROCKS 



In speaking of your Poultry Course, will 
say that it has no equal. It is not "Can 
you afford it?" but "Can you afford to do 
without it?" No one will make a mistake 
in taking an I.C.S. Poultry Course. I owe 
my success to your Poultry Course. 

Robert H. Ramsey, 

Lewisburg, Ohio 



17 



Praise From Farm Owner 

Permit me to express my gratefulness to 
you for the I.C.S. chemical analysis of my 
soil. In keeping with the knowledge that 
I gained from the studies of the I.C.S. 
Agricultural Courses, the analysis of my 
soil has made it more clear to me that my 
soil is lacking in the plant foods nitrogen, 
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne- 
sium, and organic matter, and also gave 
me the quantity of these foods that should 
be added to the acre for profitable results. 
In addition to these, it proved that my 
soil is not acid, and saved me of the ex- 
penditure for 30 tons of lime, which I 
thought my soil needed. I left the farm in 
1900 after working 5 years as a farm hand, 
but returned again 3 years ago, taking up 
farming for myself. It was then, seeing 
my deficiency, I immediately enrolled for 
the Agricultural Course of the I.C.S. I 
greatly appreciate the time spent in and 
the understanding received by studying 
these Courses. I am sure half of my suc- 
cess would have been lost had I done 
other than studying. 

Jas. H. Douglas, 
1511 Laurel St., N. S., Pittsburgh, Pa. 



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